Indian Education Policy Research Articles

Impact of Britishs East India Company on Indian Education Policy

Abstract: The 19th century witnessed a profound transformation in the political landscape of many regions, characterized by the rise of nationalism and the subsequent formation of nation-states. This research work delves into the historical context, key drivers, and consequences of this significant historical phenomenon. The research offers light on a crucial time in global history by investigating the causes of nationalism and its effects on the formation of nation-state.Employing a multidisciplinary approach, the research draws from historical, political, and sociocultural perspectives to analyze the rise of nationalism. It delves at how many peoples inside established empires and territories felt a feeling of commonality due to their shared cultural, linguistic, and historical identities. The work delves into the influence of Enlightenment ideas, Romanticism, and intellectual movements that fueled the concept of self-determination and the sovereignty of distinct nations. The study also scrutinizes the role of key historical events and figures that catalyzed the nationalist fervor. From the unification of Italy led by Giuseppe Garibaldi to the German unification orchestrated by Otto von Bismarck, the work examines the strategies employed to consolidate fragmented territories into cohesive nation-states. It also considers the implications of these transformations on regional stability, diplomacy, and balance of power.

Learning for all? Ableism, education policy, and the 'global learning crisis' in India

ABSTRACT Large-scale assessments reveal the ‘global learning crisis’. Yet, many children with disabilities are excluded from such assessments. The global learning crisis is critiqued for narrowing the educational landscape. Drawing on concepts of ableism and the DisHuman child, this paper sets out to examine ableism within education policy by explicating the assumptions of normativity and how boundaries between the normal and the ‘aberrant’ are preserved and maintained. Through critical discourse analysis of the post-Sustainable Development Goals education policy landscape in India, the paper examines the 2018 Samagra Shiksha Integrated Scheme for School Education Framework for Implementation, the 2020 National Education Policy, and the 2021 National Initiative for Proficiency in Reading with Understanding and Numeracy (NIPUN) Bharat. The paper identifies three processes that underlie the construction of disability and difference in Indian education policy: constructing urgency as a crisis of quality; assessing deviations in quality; identifying and mitigating difference to achieve quality. The DisHuman child calls on us to both trouble and disrupt ableist norms within educational policy and grapple with how policies aid access to services, rights, and entitlements that may be crucial for the everyday participation of disabled children.

Education Voucher Scheme in India: Would Lead to School Choice and Universal Education?

To remove obstacles in the path of ‘Education for All’, the government of India launched several programs, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) being one of them. Despite several attempts, the government has failed to be successful in providing education to all students and the impact of such schemes has not been very good at the ground level. In India, children are not absent from school owing to a lack of demand; rather, low quality of government education delivery is a major cause for their absence. There is a need to redefine the Indian education system or policy to a new level as government schools are unable to fulfil the growing demand for high-quality education. Direct government funding to children or parents rather than schools can provide parents or children with the ability to select the school of their choice, whether it is a government or private school. This may be accomplished through the education voucher scheme. Governments do not need to spend any additional public funds on vouchers to implement this approach. The education voucher scheme deserves an effort among the several approaches that are being pursued to improve school education.

Indian education through a G20 lens-Ensuring continuity of sustainable development

Beginning with a global inquiry for increasing technology-enabled learning and education, this article analyses Indian education policy responses in G20 nations. Educators and students in India are generally well-prepared to use best practices in tech-related education. Therefore, the G20 partnership must think about how to best encourage the development of educational systems and practices that are robust, efficient, equitable, and adaptive in order to better respond to and lessen the effects of current and future crises (United Nations 2020a; Reimers and Schleicher 2020). In this context, it is currently necessary to make provisions to improve access to the technology infrastructures for remote education within and outside the G20 countries. Additionally, to facilitate safer and more fluid transitions to remote modes of EduTech during school education in India is disrupted, educators, students, and parents require help and direction. Finally, the G20 must immediately look into more sustainable growth models in case the education sector experiences long-term difficulties.

Impact of National Education Policy 2020 on Teacher’s Diversity and Student Achievement

As Chanakya once said, "teachers are not ordinary; they are the ones who make a nation's foundation strong," which is even relevant today. In our culture, we say Mata, Pita, Guru, and Devam, where the Teacher is above god. Teachers are the reason that we are where we are; whatever we have achieved in life, it is because of the letters that were taught to us where the letters evolved into sentences, where sentences evolved into subjects, and where subjects evolved into specialization. A teacher's teaching from their subject knowledge and experience helps a student make decisions properly because he will avoid mistakes and, in turn, save time and move ahead. This study aims at focusing on the impact that NEP (National Education Policy) 2020 has created on the teacher’s diversity and its impact on student’s achievement before and after its implementation. The NEP 2020 was a much-needed change in the Indian education policy that focuses more on practical oriented teaching when compared to the present policy where students are thought methodically without any real time impact. This policy is more comprehensive not only teaching wise but the inclusion of teachers from various background and having a good experience in the particular subject and expertise in that industry, this is a boon for students since they will have access to industry specialist which will enhance their further knowledge and in turn can achieve many things by applying that knowledge to push himself in the market

Michigan Indian Education Before and After 1934: From Oppression to Neglect

Michigan Indian Education Before and After 1934:From Oppression to Neglect Tuhin Chakraborty (bio) During the last decades of the nineteenth century, Native American children were educated in boarding schools specially designed to, in the words of boarding school pioneer and Carlisle school founder Colonel Richard Henry Pratt, "kill the Indian, save the man."1 In 1893, the federal government institutionalized the forced assimilation of Michigan indigenous children into Anglo-American economic and sociocultural norms by opening the Mount Pleasant Indian Industrial School (MPIIS), named for its location in Mount Pleasant.2 Much like Carlisle and other federal Indian schools at the time, the Mount Pleasant school employed the standard tactics of assimilation, ranging from compulsory Westernized curricula based on Anglicized gender norms to the proscription of indigenous languages on school grounds.3 However, one important factor that distinguished MPIIS from other, more well-known boarding schools was the circumstances surrounding its closure.4 In 1934, the US Department of the Interior, under Secretary Harold Ickes, negotiated with Michigan Governor William Comstock what is now known as the Comstock Agreement, which transferred MPIIS from federal to state control.5 Around this time, many Indian schools across the country, such as the Haskell Institute in Kansas and the Chemawa school in Oregon, were ordered to shut down.6 However, their arrangements differed from Michigan's because they were either allowed to remain operating by Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) Commissioner John Collier or closed without state commitments to uphold indigenous education.7 The Comstock Agreement stipulated that Michigan would fully cover the costs of educating Native American school-age children so that they would not only receive a proper education, but also one on par with that for white students (and therefore better than the previous boarding school).8 This would be done in return for the Interior Department ceding MPIIS to [End Page 63] Click for larger view View full resolution The federal government established the Mount Pleasant Indian Industrial School in 1893 on 200 acres of land taken from indigenous people just decades before. Source: Clarke Historical Library, Central Michigan University. Comstock's administration so that the governor could convert the school into a facility to house and treat the mentally disabled. Broadly speaking, the state could not deliver on its promises. There was systemic oppression at MPIIS—well documented by historians, activists, and indigenous people—and it is important to illustrate the impact and aftermath of the not-nearly-as-publicized state of neglect indigenous school-age children faced after Michigan was unable to educate them adequately until the 1970s. Moreover, shifts in Indian education policy in Michigan over the twentieth century simultaneously paralleled and diverged from broader national phenomena, such as the 1934 Wheeler-Howard Act, highlighting Michigan's distinctive path to providing its indigenous population with the resources to continue their schooling.9 In stark contrast to Comstock's commitments, the transfer of MPIIS and the accompanying transitions in policy actually replaced federally structured assimilationism with the similarly poor conditions of myopic Native American educational policy. These conditions were exacerbated by a lack of federal financial support. High dropout rates, low college attendance rates, and other consequences of this neglect were, in turn, responsible for calls for renewed financial support and self-determination in the Michigan Native American education system after 1950. [End Page 64] Educational Assimilationism in Michigan After the establishment of the Michigan Territory in 1805, the young nation engaged in a multifaceted pattern of struggle and opportunistic cooperation with the indigenous communities already in the region to decide dominance (a story explored by scholars like Michael Witgen).10 According to Sarah Surface-Evans, such conflicts originally began as "external colonialism," where government armies fought back, subjugated, and militarily expelled indigenous peoples, such as the Iroquois in the early nineteenth century.11 However, by the late 1800s, after much of the remaining tribes' military power had decreased considerably with decades of war and one-sided treaties, "internal colonialism" became the norm.12 According to Surface-Evans, this included the inculcation of Native Americans into what was considered a "civilized" American lifestyle prioritized by US government officials.13 Although closely related, internal colonialism differs from...

Creating Zones of Linguistic Sovereignty: The Title VI Indian Education Policy as a Pathway for Diné Language Reclamation

Abstract: Title VI Indian Education programs provide academic support and culture-based education to American Indian and Alaska Native students attending K-12 public schools. This includes teaching Native American languages. However, little is known about how Native language instruction is implemented in Title VI programs. This article explores the Title VI Indian Education policy from an ethnographic perspective through participation in a Diné (Navajo) language class in a Title VI program in an urban school district. Two questions are addressed: What does the policy state about the role of Native American language teaching in Title VI programs? And, how was the Title VI Indian Education policy negotiated to teach Diné language and culture? Findings are framed using the zones of linguistic sovereignty ; a theoretical framework that positions the emergence of Native American language learning in English-dominant schools as linguistic sovereignty in practice.

Access versus integration: the benevolent undermining of an Indian desegregation policy

ABSTRACT Efforts to desegregate schools have consistently been undermined by privileged parents finding ways to avoid undesirable schools. In some contexts, a more complex picture is emerging, where ‘progressive’ privileged parents choose ‘diverse’ schools but still reproduce segregation. We demonstrate how the desegregation aims of an Indian education policy are similarly undermined by seemingly well-intentioned privileged actors. India’s Right to Education Act of 2009 requires private schools to educate disadvantaged children for free. The architects of this policy imagined that it would not only provide access to quality education for disadvantaged children, but also desegregate schools. Beneficiaries of the policy share the policymakers’ vision of desegregation. However, various elite and middle-class actors prioritise access over integration, and assert that segregated classrooms may be in the best interests of underprivileged children. This highlights how desegregation policies can fail not just as a result of direct opposition but also through discourses of benevolence.

What kind of नागरिक (citizen)? Civic orientations in Indian education policy

This article examines the civic mission of Indian schools by applying four civic orientations for Indian citizenship – liberalism, republicanism, ethno-nationalism and non-statism – to Indian education policy. The findings indicate that no one civic orientation dominates; therefore, Indian schools – at least at the policy level – must take up some version of each orientation. This political landscape raises several open questions about how Indian schools can cultivate democratic people – an important prerequisite to fulfilling the promise of Indian democracy.

Analysis of Higher Education in Indian National Education Policy Proposal 2019 and its Implementation Challenges

Systematic education policy is essential for offering school and college education in a country due to the reason that education leads to progress in society. Different countries use different education systems with different stages during its life cycle of school and College education levels. Recently, the Government of India received a draft Education policy suggested by an expert committee headed by Dr. K. Kasturirangan, former chairman of Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO). The committee suggested both incremental and drastically changes in existing Indian education policy and give guidelines to effective implementation in the country by 2030. This is also in line with the Objectives of fourth Sustainable Development Goals to provide quality education for all citizens through fourth Educational Industry Revolution (EIR 4.0) in the country. This paper reviews the related literature during last few years on Indian Higher Education Policies and their consequences, Salient features and their focuses on the present draft of National Education policy 2019 through content analysis. The paper highlights on various policies proposed in the draft with the special emphasis on higher education section and compare them with the previous policies. The analysis also compares the possible effects of NEP 2019 proposal on private and public HEIs in terms of facilities & restrictions. The strength and weakness of the new policy are identified with respect to various stakeholders and listed. Appropriate suggestions are made to realize the policy and make it defect free and effective from a public point of reference and for the prosperity of the country

Analysis of Higher Education in Indian National Education Policy Proposal 2019 and Its Implementation Challenges

Systematic education policy is essential for offering school and college education in a country due to the reason that education leads to progress in society. Different countries use different education systems with different stages during its life cycle of school and College education levels. Recently, the Government of India received a draft Education policy suggested by an expert committee headed by Dr. K. Kasturirangan, former chairman of Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO). The committee suggested both incremental and drastically changes in existing Indian education policy and give guidelines to effective implementation in the country by 2030. This is also in line with the Objectives of fourth Sustainable Development Goals to provide quality education for all citizens through fourth Educational Industry Revolution (EIR 4.0) in the country. This paper reviews the related literature during last few years on Indian Higher Education Policies and their consequences, Salient features and their focuses on the present draft of National Education policy 2019 through content analysis. The paper highlights on various policies proposed in the draft with the special emphasis on higher education section and compare them with the previous policies. The analysis also compares the possible effects of NEP 2019 proposal on private and public HEIs in terms of facilities & restrictions. The strength and weakness of the new policy are identified with respect to various stakeholders and listed. Appropriate suggestions are made to realize the policy and make it defect free and effective from a public point of reference and for the prosperity of the country.

The governance of families in India: education, rights and responsibility

ABSTRACTThis paper examines the shifting relations between the family and the state in Indian education policy. It charts how family resources, responsibility, and participation have been variously called upon by the state across three historical conjunctures of education reform: the decades of post-independence planning for school expansion and nation-building after 1947; the global development era of economic liberalisation and decentralisation in the 1990s and early 2000s; and the present turn to a rights-based approach in the context of intensified educational marketisation, as marked by the 2009 Right to Education Act (RTE). Across these periods, we identify an enduring paternalism of welfare governance alongside strategies for devolving state responsibility in matters of school education. The analysis situates the conditions of family responsibility for education under the contemporary RTE, in which parents are expected to be ‘morally’ compelled to meet the state's education goals. Through this analysis, we bring to the fore the politics of family governance in education policy, a politics that is largely overlooked by, despite being central to, research on education and international development.

Introduction to the Special Issue Examining and Applying Safety Zone Theory: Current Policies, Practices, and Experiences

Introduction to the Special Issue Examining and Applying Safety Zone Iheory: Current Policies, Practices» and Experiences K. TsianinaLomawaima and Teresa L. McCarty The 2014 symposium three Annual articles organized published Meeting byCynthia in of this the Benally special American issue andTimothy were Educational first San presented Pedro Research at in the a symposium organized byCynthia BenallyandTimothy SanPedroatthe 2014 Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Associationin Philadelphia. Teresa L. McCartychairedthe session,and K. TsianinaLomawaimaoffered comments as thediscussant. In guiding the issue, we thankour colleagueand co-editor Dr. BryanMcKinleyJones Brayboy fortaking thelead as developmental editor inorder topreserve the integrity of J AIE's double-blind peer reviewprocess,and to ensurethe highest standard ofquality review andeditorial oversight. Benally, Lansing, andSanPedrodrawupon,implement, andextend the framework ofSafety ZoneTheory (SZT) articulated inour(2006) book,"7b Remainan Indian ě'" Lessons in Democracyfroma Century of Native American Education. We arehumbled andgratified that thesekeenly critical scholars find thetheory useful andworthwhile toengage,and- importantly - pushbeyondour framesand articulations to open up new questions, developnewinterpretations, proposenew(or stretch old) terminology, and buildmultiple levelsofanalysis usingSZT. In whatfollows, we first revisit thetheory's originsand ourintention in proposing it as an alternative to conventional "swingsofthependulum" analysesoffederal Indianeducation policy. Wethen introduce eachofthe articles, highlighting the waysinwhich they takeup SZT in theiranalyses.At theend of theissue we offer further commentary that wehopewillbothclarify ouruseofSZT, andilluminate the newusesandimplications ofthetheory as developed bythescholars herein. Safety Zone TheoryOrigins A unifying theme acrossthisspecialissueis theauthors' shared emphasis on decolonizing methodologies. Consideration ofwhat is required toproductively decolonize methodology frames a brief history ofourintellectual trajectory as we developedSZT. A stanceof criticalinquiryinforms much of the scholarship within Indigenous studies broadly andIndigenous education more specifically. Thestanceis rooted inIndigenous perspectives, epistemologies, Journal of American Indian Education -53,Issue3,2014 1 andexperiences andgenerates anapproach that might wellbe summed up as "Question everything! Take nothingfor granted!"We believe that a distinctive attribute of a decolonizing methodology is therefusal to accept dominant ideologiesat facevalue andto ask thecritical questions:"What hidden agendasmight thisideology serve? Whobenefits from thisideological stance?" SZT beganas we confronted apparent anomaliesin theideologyof erase-and-replace assimilation. Theturn ofthe20thcentury, roughly from the 1880s through the 1920s, could be arguedas the zenithof the U.S. assimilationist agenda.Federalreservation agencies,on-andoff-reservation day and boardingschools,and churchmissionswere all conceivedas laboratories toimplement a powerful suiteofpoliciesandpractices designed - we're told- to assimilate American Indians.The removalof children from families, English-only manuallaboreducation, landallotment, federal trustauthority to manageIndigenousresources, unrestricted (or plenary) Congressionalaction to controlNative governance, land dispossession, criminalization ofNativereligions andeconomies, andextreme policepowers converged inaneffort toeraseevery traceofIndian-ness and"Americanize" thefirst Americans. Figure1, a photograph fromtheFortMojave Indian Schoolearlyinthe20thcentury, visually sumsuptheassimilationist agenda andthewaysinwhich itpunished Nativestudents. Butthenwe areconfronted bytheanomalies: historic photosofsmall tipismade fromtableclothsas students fromtheNorthern and Southern Plainswereallowed, evenencouraged, torecreate miniature campswithin the confines ofboarding schoolplaygrounds; bilingual readers produced bythe BureauofIndianAffairs (see Figure2); boarding schoolclassesintheskills to producerugs,pottery, and basketry; and the preservation of tribal communal property in- ofallthings - the1924IndianCitizenship Act,the assimilationists' purported pinnacle ofachievement. As we turn ouranalytic lens towardfederalpolicies laterin the century, we findmore blatant anomalies, as theU.S. government passedthenation'sfirst andonlyextant official languagepolicy,theNativeAmerican LanguagesActof 1990/1992, reversing morethantwocenturies ofofficial andunofficial policiesbanning NativeAmerican languages inAmerican Indian-serving schools.As wewrote inourbook,"Whata difference 100yearsmake!"(Lomawaima& McCarty, 2006,p. 134). Atfirst blush, theanomalies prompted theresponse, "Howodd.Itmust be anoversight, oranaccident." Buttheinadequacy ofthat dismissive response was quickly madeevident bythefrequency andsubstance oftheanomalies. Thereweretoomanyofthem, occurring attoomanycritical junctures. They did seem, however,to operatein the historical recordas anomalies,as "exceptions that provedtherule,"so tospeak.Theydidnotderailprocesses ofassimilation, butthey clearly contradicted theideologyinessential ways. So, itseemedthat wecouldnotsimply accepttheideology offull, erase-and2 Journal of American Indian Education -Volume 53,Issue3,2014 Figure 1. "FortMojave IndianSchool,"fromtheA. P. Millercollection, ArizonaStateMuseum, University ofArizona. replaceassimilation atitsfacevalue.We asked:Whatother agendasmight be servedby theU.S. government choosingto perpetuate a controlled set of carefullyselected,carefullydomesticated, iconic markersof nationally defined "Indian-ness?"1 Ouranswers tothequestions, "Whatother agendasmight be served?" and"Whobenefits?" generated Safety ZoneTheory. Inanarticle inAmerican Educational Research Journal ,weaddressed the"entangled forces" that have directed thenation-state's "dancebetween 'safe'and'dangerous' difference" in the"contest between Nativeeducational sovereignty andfederal constraints" Journal of American Indian Education -53,Issue3,2014 3 Figure2. Thesearea fewofthebilingual IndianLifeReadersproduced in the early 1940s by the Bureau of IndianAffairswithEnglish/heritage language texts onfacing pages,inLakota(About theHenofWahpeton; Clark, 1943a),Spanish(YoungHunter ofPicuris ; Clark...

The shifting politics of the private in education: debates and developments in researching private school outreach in India

This paper addresses the politics of researching private education with special reference to the Indian context. Due to a recent increase in privatised forms of education globally and recognition of the private sector by governments, international agencies and researchers as a policy and academic interest, this is shifting ground. The evolving nature of the politics of researching the private in the recent past is discussed with reference to research on private school outreach for out-of-school children in India. First the author critically examines the reception of this research when it was conducted in 2000–2003 in relation to the discourse and policy in Indian education at the time. The research is then revisited in the contemporary context in the light of considerable changes in Indian education policy, involving increased public–private partnership. In this new climate private school outreach is reconceptualised – previously considered an educational anomaly, it now has renewed relevance. Finally, findings from the research are drawn on to shed light on emerging concerns about the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act's (2009) requirement for private schools to reserve at least 25% of school places for economically disadvantaged children in their neighbourhoods.

Editors' Introduction Unveiling the Masks We Live By — And Engaging the "Imperative of Hope"

Editors' Introduction Unveiling the Masks We Live By - And Engaging the "Imperative of Hope" This "camouflage in issue which begins she reality" with examines a to tour serve deforce the dominant racialized byMuskogee race, masks class, scholar and discursive K. gender Tsisanina interests strategies Lomawaima, that that in whichshe examines theracialized masks- discursive strategies that "camouflage reality" toserve dominant race, class, andgender interests - that enshroud the increasingly divisive politics ofour times. Themasking hasbeen particularly virulent inthe State ofArizona - Lomawaima' splace ofresidence and our own - where recent bansonimmigration (from theSouth), Ethnic (Mexican American) Studies, languages other than English (Spanish), and "accented" English leadustoask, along with Lomawaima, "What's going on?What canwedo?" Drawing onsafety zonetheory, which shedeveloped toanalyze historic shifts in federal Indian education policy (Lomawaima, 2002;Lomawaima & McCarty, 2006), Lomawaima interrogates the politics behind the masks designed toexclude andcontrol cultural andlinguistic practices deemed tobeso"frighteningly different" astothreaten dominant power hierarchies. Unveiling the masks isanimportant - and necessary - part ofourwork, but equally necessary, Lomawaima argues, iswhat PauloFreire called a pedagogy ofhope: "Toattempt todowithout hope, which isbased onthe need for truth as anethical quality ofthestruggle, istantamount todenying that struggle oneofits mainstays" (Freire, 1995[2004], p. 8). Andso,as westrip off themasks wemust simultaneously "unveil opportunities for hope, regardless oftheobstacles" (Freire, 1995 [2004]) - animperative, Lomawaima says, weoweto"untold generations" who have struggled courageously before us,andto"those who come after." Theremainder oftheissuespeaks toboth themasking atwork inIndigenous education and tothe "opportunities for hope." Webegin with Jeffrey C.Stotts and Myrna R.Olson, who take readers toa predominately White high school inthe Midwestern U.S. attended byNative students. Through aninterview-based qualitative study, Stotts and Olson show the multitudinous racist stereotypes faced byNative youth inthis setting, the identity tugs and pulls related tolife (inthe youth's words) "onthe rez," and the resilience they muster through the support offamily, friends, teachers, and pedagogies that embrace their culture and the "here and now" oftheir lives. Hope K.Gerde and her associates then examine the presence (andabsence) ofcultural content inAmerican Indian/Alaska Native HeadStart programs inoneMidwestern state. While "nosystematic cultural orlanguage curriculum" wasapparent inthese programs, Gerde etal.nonetheless find opportunities for hope in collaborative partnerships between the programs and Native families and communities. The issue concludes with a very hopeful Report from the FieldbyBrant G.Miller, Aaron Doering, Gillian Roehrig, andRobert Shimek that illustrates the ways inwhich science, technology, engineering, andmathematics (STEM)education canbeculturally infused. Coupling ahybrid educational approach known asadventure learning with the Indigenous placeand culture-based game ofsnow snakes, Miller etal.illuminate the many possibilities for connecting Indigenous and Western science content andways ofknowing. Finally, wenote with deepsadness the recent passing ofa heroine inthe field of Indigenous education, Ruth Wheeler Roessel. ADiñéweaver, teacher, school and college administrator, andthe "founding mother" ofthe first American Indian K-12communityJournal ofAmerican Indian Education -51,Issue2,2012 1 controlled school (Rough RockDemonstration School, nowRough Rock Community School) and the first tribal college (Navajo Community College, now Diñé College), Ruth Roessel wasamong a handful ofNative women who ledthe Indian self-determination movement ofthe1960s and1970s, blazing a newpath ofopportunities inthe field of American Indian education. Atribute toRuth Roessel byher son, Dr.C.Monty Roessel, follows this introduction. Weclosebyreturning toK.Tsianina Lomawaima's reminder, inthe first line of her essay, that "sadevents cangenerate moments ofoptimism." Likethe far-reaching legacy ofA.Oscar Kawagley towhich Lomawaima refers, sotoo will webeever uplifted bythe pedagogy ofhope left tousallbyRuth Wheeler Roessel. Respectfully, - Bryan McKinley Jones Brayboy andTeresa L.McCarty, Editors Larisa Warhol, Associate Editor References Freire, P.(1995 [2004)]. Pedagogy ofhope: Reliving Pedagogy ofthe Oppressed. New York: • Continuum. Lomawaima, K.T.(2002). American Indian education: By Indians vs. for Indians. InP.J. Deloria &N.Salisbury (eds.), Acompanion to American Indian history (pp. 422-440). Maiden, MA: Blackwell. Lomawaima, K.T., &McCarty, T.L.(2006). "To remain anIndian" :Lessons indemocracy from a century of Native American education. New York: Teachers College Press. RuthRoesselaccepting an awardfrom Navajo Nationofficials forherleadershipinDine education, ca. 2010 (photograph from ASU Center for Indian Education archives) 2 Journal of American Indian Education -Volume 51,Issue2,2012 ...

The impact of aid on education policy in India

Abstract In the early 1990s, large numbers of children in India remained out of school. International commitments to achieve education for all (EFA) globally meant that India was an important case for donors. India was pressed to accept aid for primary education, and agreed with some reluctance. Although subsequent donor involvement was substantial and influenced aspects of both policy implementation and management, it is shown that Indian education policy priorities remained self-determined. The Government of India – though falling short of securing universal education for its children – succeeded in using external resources and expertise in ways which suited its own purposes, whilst minimising external impact on policy development. The politics and economics of this process are discussed.

“But What Is The Object of Educating These Children, If It Costs Their Lives to Educate Them?”: Federal Indian Education Policy in Western Canada in The Late 1800s

Debates in the Canadian House of Commons in the last two decades of the nineteenth century revealed persistent differences between the Conservatives and the Liberals over federal Indian education policy and the administration of industrial schools. Until their defeat in 1896, the Conservatives supported a denominational industrial school system and a policy of rapid assimilation. The Liberals generally opposed denominational schools and believed the industrial school system was too costly and was not leading to rapid assimilation. After gaining power, the Liberals stopped construction of industrial schools in favour of boarding and day schools, but denominational influence remained strong. The Conservative emphasis on assimilation was replaced by measures that supported reserve-based segregation as earlier hopes for rapid assimilation diminished. Despite policy differences, neither the Conservatives nor the Liberals held Aboriginal cultures in high regard, and debates regarding the means and intent of Indian education played out against well-known, high mortality rates and often abysmal conditions in the schools.

“I Should Not Be Wearing a Pilgrim Hat”: Making an Indian Place in Urban Schools, 1945–75

“I can still remember walking with my mom to Longview Elementary School for the first day of school,” said Martha Sadongei, thinking back to her childhood in the 1960s. “I remember seeing all these kids, all these parents,” she recalled. “It was crowded, and it was noisy, with the echoing little hallways— they were short hallways but there was still a lot of noise. And I remember my mom taking me to the classroom. I don’t remember being scared. I just remember her taking me and finding the room, and that was it. She just said, ‘This is where you’re going to start school, so just listen to what they say, and I’ll be back. I’m not leaving you. I’ll be back, but you need to go to school.’” Reassured by her mother’s words, Martha Sadongei took her seat in her new classroom and prepared to listen to what her teacher had to tell her.1 In one sense, Martha Sadongei’s story is like the story of almost every American child in the twentieth century. In other ways, however, it is different.2 Martha Sadongei is an American Indian, the child of a Kiowa father and a Tohono O’odham mother. Yet her story is not only different from that of non-Indian children but also from that of many Indian children. Instead of attending a federal boarding school or a reservation school, as did many Native youths in the twentieth century, Sadongei attended a school in the heart of a large city: Phoenix, Arizona. Even though there were tens of thousands of Native Americans like her who attended urban public schools between 1945 and 1975, historians have been rather slow to learn their stories. They have now produced several good studies of federal boarding schools and federal Indian education policy, but they have almost completely overlooked urban Indian school experiences.3 This is no small oversight, for by 1970 the number of urban Indians in the United States was nearly the same

Dorothy Dunn and the Art Education of Native Americans: Continuing the Dialogue

In 1932 Dorothy Dunn established the Studio, a painting program for Native American students, at Santa Fe Indian School. Dunn taught at the Studio for only 5 years; however, she was influential on the development of both art education for Native American students and Native American easel painting. Dunn taught several Native American students who became well known artists. Her teaching theories influenced the art education practices of several subsequent programs for Native American students. Her theories about Native American art influenced what was accepted and rejected by critics, galleries, collectors, museums, and the general public for decades. Recently Smith (1999) and Stokrocki (2000) have called for more research on art education in the American southwest. Smith brings Dorothy Dunn into art education historical literature as an important historical figure in southwestern art education. Stokrocki praises Smith's efforts to make this major female art educator's work more visible and asks for more research about her. With this article I will continue the dialogue begun by Smith and Stokrocki concerning the work of Dorothy Dunn by exploring Dorothy Dunn's theories and art education practices. I will examine implications of Dunn's theories and art education practices for both the art education of Native American students and for Native American art. This study also can help fill the gap identified by Smith (1999) in existing art education historical literature concerning the art education of minority students. I want to bring to the dialogue issues of identity and authenticity, which are important concerns in Native American art, and which are deeply intertwined with the history of art education for Native American students. Dunn's art teaching, the exhibition of her students' works, and her publications helped to codify ideas about Native American identity, Native American art, and its authenticity for both Native people and nonNatives. Some Native American artists found in Dunn's influences the means to create positive identities for themselves as Native people. Others rejected Dunn's influences and from this rejection created a different basis for their Native American identities and established new directions in Native American art. Stokrocki (2000) asked that the voices of Native Americans and women be brought forth in research about the history of art education in the American southwest. Although I have not conducted the ethnohistories of Native Americans and women that Stokrocki rightly calls for, as a Native American woman researcher who has chosen to write on this topic I do bring one such voice to the dialogue. Dorothy Dunn herself published in both the literature of art education and the literature of Native American art studies. To date, very little has been published about Dunn in art education historical literature. Consequently, many of the secondary sources that I use for this paper come from the field of Native American art studies. Early Native American Education Policy The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) has been involved in the education of Native American students since the late 19th century. Indian education policy prior to the New Deal era focused on assimilation of Native students into mainstream American society. This was thought to be best accomplished by replacing savagism with civilization (Adams, 1995). The annihilation of traditional Indian cultures was seen as the removal of a major roadblock to civilization. This cultural annihilation included preventing students from practicing their traditional religions and speaking their Native languages. Creating images of their homes, rituals, or creating other aspects of their visual and material cultures also was discouraged. Consequently art instruction was not usually a part of Indian education. However, some groups of people who were predominantly White AngloSaxons worked to change this government policy. …

Self-Determination and the Social Education of Native Americans

Preface Introduction Economic Self-help and Self-determination Swift Termination and Indian Emancipation Justifying Termination Through Competency: The Roots of Self-determination The Developing Ideology of Self-determination The Task Force on Indian Affairs Self-determination, Community Control, and School Reform Primer for Control: Immediate Postwar Indian Education Policy Community Action and the Development of the Indian- controlled Contract School Self-determination and Education Assistance Act: The Illusion of Control Native American Dialogue and Impact Sovereign Self-determination The Wrong Voices Self-determination and the Trust Relationship Conclusion: Managing Manifest Destiny Bibliography Index