Independent Word Research Articles

Legislative Herbs in the Work of Mahmud Kashgari “Devonu Lug’otit Turk”

The noun phrase, which is one of the independent word groups, differs from the words in the other category in its construction features. Horses have a lot of adverbs, and they make a lot of new words. That is why horses are a group of words that are enriched by new words. Mahmud Kashgari also classified horses into primitive and artificial horses in the “Devonu lug'otit turk”. In the Devonu lug'otit turk, the scholar gives information mainly about verb horses. He gives examples of artificial horses coming from other words. Some of these have been used and heard in marriage, while others are vague and comparative.

Measuring associational thinking through word embeddings

The development of a model to quantify semantic similarity and relatedness between words has been the major focus of many studies in various fields, e.g. psychology, linguistics, and natural language processing. Unlike the measures proposed by most previous research, this article is aimed at estimating automatically the strength of associative words that can be semantically related or not. We demonstrate that the performance of the model depends not only on the combination of independently constructed word embeddings (namely, corpus- and network-based embeddings) but also on the way these word vectors interact. The research concludes that the weighted average of the cosine-similarity coefficients derived from independent word embeddings in a double vector space tends to yield high correlations with human judgements. Moreover, we demonstrate that evaluating word associations through a measure that relies on not only the rank ordering of word pairs but also the strength of associations can reveal some findings that go unnoticed by traditional measures such as Spearman’s and Pearson’s correlation coefficients.

On the segmentation of Chinese incremental words.

In the present article, we report two eye-tracking experiments on how Chinese readers segment incremental words while reading Chinese. Incremental words are multicharacter words containing a subset of characters that constitute another word (referred to as the embedded word). For example, in a word containing three characters ABC (e.g., "," meaning landlady), the first two characters AB ("," meaning boss) constitute an embedded word. In the two experiments, Chinese readers read sentences with 3-character incremental words. In Experiment 1, the incremental words were always plausible, and the verbs prior to the target words were manipulated so that the embedded word of the incremental word was either plausible or implausible as an independent word. The eye-movement data showed that the plausibility manipulation did not influence the reading times on the incremental words nor their embedded words. In Experiment 2, we manipulated the plausibility of both incremental and embedded words. No plausibility effect of the embedded word was observed when the incremental words were plausible. However, the plausibility effect of the embedded word was obtained when the incremental words were implausible. These results suggest that Chinese readers tend to segment and integrate incremental words as a whole unit when they are plausible. However, when incremental words are implausible, the embedded words are segmented as independent words. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Gradience in prosodic representation: vowel reduction and neoclassical elements in Brazilian Portuguese

In Brazilian Portuguese, neoclassical elements (NCEs) may combine with both independent lexical words (e.g., psico in psicolinguística ‘psycholinguistics’) and non-lexical words (e.g., psico in psicologia ‘psychology’). This has led to the proposal that they have distinct prosodic representations depending on the type of structure that they form: NCE+Indep(endent lexical word) prosodizes recursively in the PWd, whereas NCE+Dep(endent form) prosodizes as a simple PWd. However, both NCE+Indep and NCE+Dep are subject to vowel reduction processes that yield similar surface forms: the NCE in NCE+Indep is targeted by word-final raising, and the NCE in NCE+Dep is targeted by raising in pretonic position. This similarity in surface forms poses a problem for the proposal of separate prosodic representations, as different forms of prosodization imply different phonological behavior. We analyze native speakers’ judgements and productions with respect to reduction of the NCE-final vowel under the hypothesis that, if these NCE structures are prosodized differently and undergo different processes, the process that is more frequent in the Brazilian Portuguese grammar (word-final raising) should have higher acceptance and production rates. Results confirm our hypothesis. We argue that the gradient application of phonological processes reflects prosodic distinctions that cannot be captured in a framework that only considers the application or non-application of said processes.

NEW VIEWS ON DIVIDING WORDS INTO CATEGORIES

This article provides information about the initial division of words into two groups, independent and auxiliary words, word combination, sentence, semantic-structure of words, lexeme, word classification. There are two important aspects of words to be considered in morphological classification in word categories.

University Students’ Perceptions About Artificial Intelligence

The aim of this study was to determine the perceptions of university students about the concept of artificial intelligence. The sample of the research carried out with the screening method consists of 130 fourth grade students studying in the Faculty of Education, Faculty of Arts and Sciences and Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences of a university in Eastern Anatolia region in 2018-2019 academic year. 42 students from Faculty of Education, 47 from Faculty of Arts and Sciences and 41 from Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences participated in the study. The sample of the study was determined by snowball sampling method. Independent Word Association Test was used as data collection tool. Content analysis was used for data analysis. As a result of the study, it was determined that artificial intelligence perceptions of the students of the Faculty of Education were richer than the students of the Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences and the Faculty of Arts and Sciences. Another important result determined in the study is that the negative perceptions of all sample groups about artificial intelligence concept are more significant than positive perceptions. Giving lectures to university students about current artificial intelligence applications and usage in their fields are among the suggestions of the study.

On the Etymology of the Negative Suffix -ma / -me in Turkish Languages of the Oghuz Group

The formation of suffixes draws the great attention of turkologists. The negative suffix ma/-me is one the most interesting suffixes because it is not stressed. This fact led the researchers to assume that this suffix comes from an independent word, though ideas on the word that this suffix is original differ among the scientists. The following hypotheses deal with the origin of the negative suffix: 1. W. Bang’s and Sh. Tekin’s hypothesis; 2. G.J. Ramsted’s and T. Tekin’s hypothesis; 3. B.A. Serebrennikov’s and N. Z. Hajiyeva’s hypothesis. In most of these hypotheses, it is stated that the suffix -ma/-me is connected to an auxiliary verb. The negative suffix used in the Old Turkish language and the one being used in the modern Turkic languages is the same - it has not been changed through time or has very few phonetic changes. Accordingly, all of the suggestions about its formation can only be accepted as hypotheses.

The Use of Noun Compositions in Teenage Slang - Analysis of the Teen Magazine Bravo

Noun compositions portray a model of word formation where at least two independent words are combined to a new one. Modern German is rich in noun compositions and because of that, this phenomenon is very frequent in use. This available contribution is aiming to analyze this model of word formation in the German teen magazine Bravo. Considering the classification of noun compositions, it is to say that it was followed by the theory of Fleischer and Barz (1995). As a research object, teenage slang was chosen for its classification as language variety and its playful language structure. On top of that, we analyzed 10 news reports from "Deutsche Welle" to recognize if there are any differences between teenage slang and media language.

A Neural Network Based Arabic Speech Filing System.(Dept.E)

A natural man - machine communication with word processors requires the integration of speech recognition techniques. Speech recognition task is a difficult problem because of its temporal nature and the possibility of the presence of noise. Therefore, it is difficult to extract significant features by using the traditional techniques. Artificial neural networks introduce simple and fast learning techniques for this problem. This paper introduces the application of a three layer neural network for converting spoken Arabic words into Arabic text. We describe a supervised learning method which is based on the well known back propagation technique. The designed network proves itself to be speaker independent and noise immune word spotting guarantees invariance under translation in time. A user friendly word processor should nave intelligent interfaces such as the speaker interface and the hand writing interface. In this work we introduce the first interface. It is expected that neural network based speech-to-text transcription systems should have a significant effect on office

Grammaticalization in Somali and the development of morphological tone

We demonstrate how grammaticalization may cause the restructuring of prosodic systems, leading to the development of new prosodic types. Illustrated with data from Northern Somali and related varieties, we show how a restricted tone system has developed into one of morphological tone through grammatical­ization of independent words to bound forms. Diachronic change has weakened the “accentual” properties of the High tone in Somali, and the tone patterns are synchronically best analyzed as properties of morphological constructions rather than of prosodic domains.

Designing building blocks for open-ended early literacy software

English has a convoluted relationship between its pronunciation and spelling, which obscures its phonological structure for early literacy learners. This convoluted relationship has implications for early literacy software, particularly for open-ended, child-driven designs. A tempting way to bypass this issue is to use manipulables (blocks) that are directly tied to phonemes. However, creating phoneme-based blocks leads to two design challenges: (a) how to represent phonemes visually in a child-accessible way and (b) how to account for context-dependent spelling. In the present work, we approached these challenges by developing a set of animated, onomatopoeia-based mnemonic characters, one per phoneme, that can take the shape of different graphemes.We applied the characters to a construction-based literacy app to simplify independent word-building for literacy beginners. We tested the app during a 13-week-long period with 4- to 5-year-olds in kindergarten classrooms. Children showed visible interest in the characters and properly grasped the principles of their functioning. However, the blocks were not sufficient to scaffold independent word building, leading children to rely on other scaffolding mechanisms. To test the characters' efficiency as mnemonics, we evaluated their effect on the speed and accuracy of finding phonemes on a keyboard. The results suggest that there were both children who benefitted from the characters in this task and those who performed better without them. The factors that differentiated these two categories are currently unclear. To help further research on phonetic mnemonics in literacy learning software, we are making the characters available to the research community.

Acoustic evidence for affix classes: A case study of Brazilian Portuguese

In languages that assign stress differently according to morphological structure, affixes often fall into different categories. In Brazilian Portuguese, normal suffix words have one stress (Base: [kaˈfɛ] ‘coffee’; suffixed: [kafe-ˈtejɾa] ‘coffee pot’). Special suffix words are claimed to have two stresses, one of which falls in the same location as in the independent base ([ka ˌfɛ-ˈzĩɲu] ‘coffee-DIM’). The special suffixes include diminutive -(z)inho, superlative -íssimo, and adverbial -mente. This paper reports on a production study showing that stress maintenance on the base of special suffix words is acoustically present through longer duration and marginally higher intensity, and through maintenance of vowel height for mid vowels. Phonologically, the special suffixes are often analyzed as attaching to an independent prosodic word base (e.g.Collischonn 1994; Moreno 1997; Vigário 2003; Guzzo 2018). I cast the analysis in Distributed Morphology (Halle & Marantz 1993): the phonological differences between special and normal suffixes are due to morphosyntactic differences. Under this analysis, differences between special and normal suffixes are principled rather than arbitrary. Morphological and prosodic structure are both necessary, and prosodic structure mediates between morphology and phonological processes.

Uzbek language about linguistic nature of auxiliary words

In this article, one of the auxiliary words of the Uzbek language - some of the issues that cause controversy around the assistants was expressed. In this place, we want to emphasize the same thing, they always remember the idea that “auxiliary words come from independent words”, acting as a bridge between independent words and auxiliary words in a certain sense. In fact, in these interpretations, the so-called lexeme of the word, and the lexeme is considered a lexical figurative element are thought-provoking words to be called auxiliary words. Because the linguistic nature of auxiliary words does not allow them to be viewed in the way they are interpreted, that is, as a lexical unit. But a slightly different approach to the issue makes it clear. Hence, independent-auxiliary words occupy an intermediate position between pure auxiliary words and pure independent words (5, 48–49).

ПО БАРАБАНУ: ЛЕКСИКО-ГРАММАТИЧЕСКИЙ СТАТУС И ЛЕКСИКОГРАФИЧЕСКОЕ ПРЕДСТАВЛЕНИЕ УСТОЙЧИВЫХ ДВУХКОМПОНЕНТНЫХ ПРЕДЛОЖНО-ПАДЕЖНЫХ СОЧЕТАНИЙ

The aim of the article is to review the ways of dictionary presentation of stable prepositional combinations and the factors essential for their lexical-grammatical status and the type of optimal lexicographic description. The object of the study is twocomponent prepositional combinations with stable meanings and the “preposition+noun” structure. The material of the article is data of different dictionaries of Russian presenting stable prepositional combinations. In the course of the study, the following questions were answered: why the definition and interpretation of the lexical-grammatical nature of stable prepositional combinations are so difficult and ambiguous; what lexicographic interpretation these units have in dictionaries of different types; what the advantages and disadvantages of different ways of dictionary interpretation of such language material are. The following methods were used: introspective (observation, generalization, classification), systematic lexicographic description according to dictionary parameters, dictionary definition analysis. The summary table of the lexicographic presentation of stable combinations allows seeing both the unresolved question of dictionary interpretation of such units and the patterns of their interpretation depending on the type of a dictionary. As a result of the analysis the following conclusions were drawn. 1) In modern Russian there is a rather large (about 2,000 units) class of language units (prepositional combinations), the lexical-grammatical status of which is not defined, and there is no term for their definition; this class is historically formed and continues to replenish. 2) The type of dictionary presentation of stable prepositional combinations is determined by the dictionary concept, grammatical and syntactic properties, presence of figurative meaning and possibility of component variation of such combinations. 3) The unresolved theoretical issues have as a result the lexicographic discrepancy in the presentation of these language units. Extreme lexicographic solutions are a separate dictionary entry for each combination and the presentation of such units only as stable combinations in the entry of a noun (presented in academic explanatory dictionaries). 4) Taking into account only the factor of presence/absence of a gap seems to formalize the dictionary presentation of adverbs with both conjoined and split spelling, really existing in Russian, and the position of recognition of these units with independent words and their isolate presentation is not impeccable for dictionary users. 5) In the author’s opinion, the presentation of stable prepositional combinations exclusively as independent vocabules is inferior to the traditional lexicographic approach because the isolated presentation of this material breaks the semantic connections of these complex lexical units; the most complex issue is the differentiation of adverbs with split spelling and stable combinations.

Disyllabic Localizers in Modern Chinese

This study investigates the syntactic behavior of disyllabic localizers in Modern Chinese. Recent studies (Huang et al. 2009; Djamouri et al. 2013; Liu and Oakden 2014) point out the boundness nature of disyllabic localizers, but to date there has been no consensus on what syntactic status they have. We examine a wide range of disyllabic localizers and find that disyllabic localizers do not all behave the same. While some can be used both as independent words and as phrasal bound forms, others are always bound at the phrasal level. Nonetheless, there are two characteristics that are shared by all disyllabic localizers: they are all nominal, and they are all bound when occurring at the end of a phrase. The best way to characterize the entire class of disyllabic localizers is that they are nominal phrasal bound forms with some of them also functioning as nouns in certain environments.

Statistical analysis of independent words in the historical works of Alisher Navoi

In clause the statistical analysis of words concerning parts of speech to a noun, adjective, pronoun, numeral, verb, adverb is given which meet in structure of lexicon of historical products Alisher Navoi "Tarikhi muluki Ajam" and "Tarikhi Anbiyo va hukamo". The importance of written monuments is great in the study of the historical language and society, which determine the stages of its formation. Their role is undeniable because the language develops in conjunction with the historical society and the people, the changes taking place in society are reflected in the written sources of a particular time.

Lingupooetic characteristics of uzbek auxiliary units in poetry

The article reveals the specific features and functions of the supporting units in the literary text on the example of Eshqobil Shukur's poems. The paper also discusses the theoretical basis for the expression of units of independent meaning in the text only grammatical meaning. The focus is on the pragmatic nature of the supporting units. The peculiarities of the use of auxiliary units in the poetic text are discussed. Auxiliaries, like auxiliary verbs, are in a privative conflict in the lexical-level group of independent words and auxiliary words under the sign of “spiritual dependence.”

Öğrencilerin Kanser Kavramı ile İlgili Bilişsel Yapıları: Kelime İlişkilendirme Testi

Bu çalışmanın amacı, dokuzuncu sınıf öğrencilerinin kanser kavramı ile ilgili bilişsel yapılarını belirlenmesidir. Çalışmada, nitel araştırma yöntemlerinden durum çalışması kullanılmıştır. Çalışma grubu, 2019-2020 eğitim-öğretim yılında Marmara bölgesinde bulunan bir meslek lisesinde öğrenim gören 50 dokuzuncu sınıf öğrencisinden oluşmaktadır. Bağımsız kelime ilişkilendirme testi ile toplanana veriler, içerik analizi tekniğine göre analiz edilmiştir. Çalışma sonuçlarına göre, öğrencilerin kanserle ilgili 8 tema ve 81 alt tema altında 265 kelime ürettikleri belirlenmiştir. Bu temalar: Tanım (13), belirtiler (17), nedenler (20), çeşitleri (61), sonuçlar (39), tedavi (85), korunma yolları (2), algılar (28). Öğrencilerin kanser kavramıyla ilişkili yazdıkları anlamlı cümleler (36), 7 tema altında toplanmıştır: Tanım (8), nedenler (4), çeşitleri (2), sonuçlar (6), algılar (5), tedavi (8), korunma yolları (3). Sonuç olarak, öğrencilerin en çok tedavi, çeşitleri ve sonuçlar temaları ile ilgili kelime ürettikleri gözlenirken, öğrencilerin en çok tanım, tedavi ve sonuçlar temaları ile ilgili cümle kurdukları belirlenmiştir.

The acoustic behavior of pretonic mid vowels in complex words of BP

O presente estudo pretende investigar um dos correlatos acústicos do acento primário no português brasileiro – a saber, a qualidade vocálica – em vogais médias iniciais de palavras complexas por sufixos legítimos e sufixos composicionais. Partimos da ideia de que afixos legítimos são prosodicamente integrados à base, enquanto afixos composicionais podem ser considerados palavras prosódicas independentes. Por serem palavras prosódicas e portarem um acento primário, hipotetizamos que as vogais da base sejam pronunciadas de forma plena, como vogais tônicas; vogais de palavras derivadas por afixos legítimos, por serem átonas, podem apresentar uma realização mais centralizada no trapézio vocálico. A fim de verificar se a classificação dos afixos em dois grupos distintos, proposta com base morfofonológica, pode ser sustentada por características acústicas, coletamos dados de fala de 5 informantes do sexo masculino da região Sul. Os informantes proferiram as palavras-alvo com vogais médias na frase-veículo “Diga X pra mim” e foram analisados os parâmetros acústicos F1 (referente à altura da língua) e F2 (referente ao avanço/recuo da língua) das vogais iniciais. Os resultados gerais confirmam parcialmente nossa hipótese e mostram que, quando a vogal pretônica apresenta distanciamento em relação aos valores da tônica, geralmente trata-se de uma vogal de formação legítima.

Extracting Effective Image Attributes with Refined Universal Detection.

Recently, image attributes containing high-level semantic information have been widely used in computer vision tasks, including visual recognition and image captioning. Existing attribute extraction methods map visual concepts to the probabilities of frequently-used words by directly using Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs). Typically, two main problems exist in those methods. First, words of different parts of speech (POSs) are handled in the same way, but non-nominal words can hardly be mapped to visual regions through CNNs only. Second, synonymous nominal words are treated as independent and different words, in which similarities are ignored. In this paper, a novel Refined Universal Detection (RUDet) method is proposed to solve these two problems. Specifically, a Refinement (RF) module is designed to extract refined attributes of non-nominal words based on the attributes of nominal words and visual features. In addition, a Word Tree (WT) module is constructed to integrate synonymous nouns, which ensures that similar words hold similar and more accurate probabilities. Moreover, a Feature Enhancement (FE) module is adopted to enhance the ability to mine different visual concepts in different scales. Experiments conducted on the large-scale Microsoft (MS) COCO dataset illustrate the effectiveness of our proposed method.