Children's Independent Mobility Research Articles

Exploring Children's Travel to School in Upgraded Informal Settlements: A Qualitative Case Study of Ezbet El-Haggana

The majority of residential settlements in Greater Cairo are informal, yet little is known about travel behavior within its informal settlements. The present paper explores aspects of travel behavior in one of Egypt's largest and most dense informal settlements, Ezbet El-Haggana, through a qualitative study of children's travel to school. The key research question was: How do children interact with transport options to access schools in a dense informal settlement in Egypt? Ten Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) for this research were conducted, 4 with mothers, 5 with children, and 1 with transport service providers. Design of FGDs leveraged existing behavioral theories commonly used in exploring travel behavior and also included photo-elicitation. Qualitative data was also complimented with field observations and interviews with community leaders and government officials. Findings highlighted the high degree of children's independent mobility (CIM) and the diversity of modes of transport used and multitude of trip-to-school arrangements facilitated by community collaboration and entrepreneurial initiatives standing in contrast to current mainstream knowledge about trips to school in formal urban areas. Another distinct feature is prevalence of strong socio-cultural factors strongly inhibiting the consideration of cycling as a mode of transport, more so for older females, but also for all other segments. Implications for accompanying culturally-sensitive gender-specific soft measures that are needed together with the planned hard interventions are discussed in order to (a) maintain existing elements of sustainable travel behavior observed today (mode choices and efficient trip planning) sustaining their relatively low carbon footprint, and (b) mainstream underutilized modes such as cycling and Walking School Buses (WSB), and (c) inhibit adoption of unsustainable travel behavior in the future as found in the formal counterpart of the city that informal settlements are converging with.

Individual, family, and neighborhood correlates of independent mobility among 7 to 11-year-olds.

Objective. Independent mobility refers to the freedom that children have to move around their neighborhood without adult supervision. It is related to their physical activity and health. We examined the intrapersonal, family, and neighborhood correlates of independent mobility within children. Methods. 497 American parents of 6.9–11.9 year olds completed a survey (November, 2014) that assessed their child's independent mobility range, several intrapersonal characteristics of their child (gender, age, race, etc.), several characteristics of their family (family structure, socioeconomic status, parental physical activity, etc.), and their perceptions of the safety of their neighborhood (18 questions reduced to 4 components). Associations were determined using ordinal logistic regression. Results. Children's age, parent's perception that their neighborhood is safe for children, and parent's fear of neighborhood crime were the independent correlates of independent mobility. Compared to 6.9–7.9 year olds, the odds ratio (95% CI) for increasing independent mobility were 2.31 (1.47–3.64) in 8.0–9.9 year olds and 3.38 (2.13–5.36) in 10.0–11.9 year olds. Compared to children whose parents who did not perceive that their neighborhood was safe for children, the odds ratio for increasing independent mobility was 4.24 (2.68–6.70) for children whose parents perceived their neighborhood was safe for children. Compared to children whose parents had the lowest fear of neighborhood crime, the odds ratio for increasing independent mobility was 0.41 (0.27–0.62) for children whose parents had the highest fear of crime. Conclusions. Children's independent mobility was associated with their age, their parent's perception that their neighborhood was safe for children, and their parent's fear of crime.

Too far from home? Adult attitudes on children's independent mobility range

The purpose of this study was to investigate adult attitudes on distances children should be allowed to travel to places and play in outdoor areas without adult supervision, with consideration of differences in adult attitudes by socio-demographics and urbanisation. In 2013, Australian adults (N = 1293) were asked what distances children aged 8–12 years should be allowed to walk/cycle to places, and play outdoors without adults. Descriptive analyses and chi-square tests were conducted to assess adult attitudes on children's independent mobility range. Overall, 62% of adults would restrict children's independent travel to places <500 m from home, and 74% would restrict independent outdoor play <500 m from home. Women and adults with lower education were more likely to report restrictive attitudes than men and adults with higher education, respectively. The promotion of active travel and outdoor play in children may require increasing adults’ acceptance of greater independent mobility range.

School Travel

Over the past half-century, rates of active school travel have declined across the industrialized West, and the number of children driven to school by automobile has increased. Over the same period, the prevalence of childhood obesity has increased. Lack of physical activity may be partly to blame for recent obesity trends. School travel is one opportunity to establish daily physical activity through walking or cycling. The purpose of this study was to examine how social and environmental barriers related to the mode of travel and children's independent mobility in the Greater Toronto and Hamilton Area, Ontario, Canada. Computer-aided telephone interviews were conducted with 1,016 parents and guardians of elementary school children. Geographic information system analysis was performed to examine the objective measures of the environment. Binary logistic regression tested the association between social, individual, and objective neighborhood characteristics and school travel outcomes. Distance was related to the mode of travel: students who lived farther from school were less likely to walk. Children who lived in a residential development constructed before 1960 were more likely to walk to school; this finding suggested that certain features within these older neighborhoods promoted walking. The density of intersections was related to walking, but living in an area with a higher population density discouraged unescorted walking to school. Finally, the age of the child influenced the odds of walking independently, but the relationship varied by environment. Children were able to undertake independent travel at a younger age when living in an older neighborhood. Keywords: SR2S

Australian children's independent mobility levels: secondary analyses of cross-sectional data between 1991 and 2012

This study investigated changes in Australian children's independent mobility levels between1991 and 2012. Data from five cross-sectional studies conducted in 1991, 1993, 2010, 2011 and 2012 were analysed. Parent and child surveys were used to assess parental licences for independent mobility and actual independent mobility behaviour in children aged 8–13 years. Findings show declines in the proportion of young children (≤10 years of age) being allowed to travel home from school alone (1991: 68%, 1993: 50%, 2010: 43%, 2011: 45%, 2012: 31%) and travel on buses alone (1991: 31%, 1993: 15%, 2010: 8%, 2011: 6%, 2012: 9%). Furthermore, the proportion of children travelling independently to school decreased (1991: 61%, 1993: 42%, 2010: 31%, 2011: 32%, 2012: 32%). Significantly fewer girls than boys travelled independently to school at each time point (p ≤ .001). Overall, the findings suggest that Australian children's independent mobility levels declined between 1991 and 2012.

A pilot study exploring the measurement of intergenerational differences in independent mobility

Abstract Background A fundamental issue limiting the understanding of children's independent mobility (IM) is the absence of a standardised measurement method. This pilot study explored the use of three different measures of IM to assess intergenerational change and investigated social perceptions in children's unsupervised roaming. Methods Data were collected for 45 participants from three directly-related generations. IM was assessed and analysed in all participants using three measures; IM Licence (permission to travel unsupervised), IM Index (the summed score from multiple items on a questionnaire) and IM Maximum (maximum roaming distance from participants' residential addresses located on Google Maps). Qualitative data were collected from all participants regarding perceptions of IM. Results Significant correlations between IM Index and IM Maximum were observed for child participants ( R 2 =0.334) but not for parents ( R 2 =0.024) or grandparents ( R 2 =0.284). IM Licence was not comparable with either IM Index or IM Maximum. Decreases in IM from grandparent to child were observed for all three measures of IM, with some children experiencing extremely low levels of IM. Conclusion The results highlight the need for a standard measurement protocol for IM that facilitates comparability among studies. Maximum IM distance estimated via web-based interactive mapping may be a promising choice in this respect.

Childhood in a neoliberal utopia: planning rhetoric and parental conceptions in contemporary stockholm

This article addresses how neoliberalism as a utopian ideal of the urban affects the practices of planners and parents, drawing on Stockholm, Sweden, as an example and foregrounding how these adult conceptions of the city are manifested, both socially and physically, and shape children's geographies. Through an analysis of planning documents and interviews with planners and parents, this study shows how Stockholm's planning is clearly conditioned by neoliberal beliefs, but rather than being linked with political sympathies, neoliberalism is expressed as a contemporary urbanism. This specific urbanism is not compatible with children's independent mobility and easy access to nature and play spaces, but demands, as expressed by planners and parents, certain “sacrifices” in order to be achieved. The study shows that age is an organizing norm in terms of spatial justice in the city and that ideological beliefs about the urban development affect how this (in)justice is organized. The planning documents reflect utopian neoliberal ideas about a specific urban identity, and when private actors are given more influence over what is being built and which spaces are developed, there is a deliberate transition from welfare‐planning values and the belief that children and adults have equal rights to urban neighbourhoods. This is expressed as a necessary transformation to a more urban and globally competitive city but given the extent to which welfare values are taken for granted in Sweden it is unlikely that the effect this transition will have on social and spatial justice in the city is recognized.

Socio-demographic factors and neighbourhood social cohesion influence adults' willingness to grant children greater independent mobility: A cross-sectional study.

BackgroundIn developed countries, children’s independent mobility levels are low. Built environmental factors and parental safety concerns are well-known to predict the level of independent mobility adults grant to children. In contrast, the influence of adults’ socio-demographic characteristics and neighbourhood social cohesion on children’s independent mobility is largely unexplored. This study investigated the influence of adults’ socio-demographic factors and neighbourhood social cohesion on distances they would permit children for independent travel and outdoor play.MethodsIn 2013, a random sample of 1293 Australian adults (mean age: 56.1 years, 52 % male, 81 % parents) participated in the Queensland Social Survey (QSS) via computer-assisted telephone interview. Socio-demographic factors measured included age, sex, parental status, education and area-level socio-economic disadvantage. Perceived neighbourhood social cohesion was assessed using a standardised scale. Adults reported the distances children aged 8–12 years should be allowed to walk/cycle to places, and play outdoors without adults. Responses were categorised into ‘within sight’, < 0.5 kilometres (km) , 0.5-1 km and >1 km. Ordinal logistic regression was used to assess associations of socio-demographic factors and neighbourhood social cohesion with distances adults would permit for children’s independent travel and outdoor play.ResultsParents and adults with lower education were less likely to permit greater distances for children’s independent travel (OR = 0.57 and OR = 0.59, respectively). Women, parents and adults with lower education were less likely to grant children greater distances for independent outdoor play (OR = 0.61, OR = 0.50 and OR = 0.60, respectively). In contrast, adults with higher perceptions of neighbourhood social cohesion were more likely to permit children greater distances for independent travel (OR = 1.05)and outdoor play (OR = 1.05). Adult age and area-level socio-economic disadvantage were not associated with distances adults would permit for independent travel and outdoor play.ConclusionsWomen, parents (particularly those of younger children), adults with lower education and those who perceived neighbourhood social cohesion as being lower were less willing to let children independently travel further away from home. Interventions to increase children’s independent mobility may be more effective if targeted to these groups. In addition, increasing neighbourhood social cohesion may help increase adults’ willingness to grant children greater independent mobility.

Is ‘Citizen Kid’ an Independent Kid? The Relationship between Children's Independent Mobility and Active Citizenship

Children want to engage with their city and have freedom to explore and learn. CATCH (Children, Active Travel, Connectedness and Health) is a three-year research project investigating local environment influences on children's independent mobility, social connectedness and health in four Australian cities. In this project, ‘active citizenship’ as well as children's ability to articulate local environmental preferences through photo collages correlated with higher levels of independent mobility. Taking a social constructivist perspective, these results are analyzed to explain how children's active citizenship might be grounded in experiences of local neighbourhood and what this might mean for children and cities.

Development of a systems model to visualise the complexity of children's independent mobility

Substantial changes to the built environment, urbanisation patterns, and societal norms have contributed to limiting children's opportunities for being independently mobile. Several linear causal pathway models have been developed to understand the influences on children's independent mobility; however feedback loops between and within the various levels of influence cannot be modelled using such an approach. The purpose of this paper is to refine the interrelationships of factors related to children's independent mobility, taking into account earlier models, broader contextual factors, recent children's geographies literature, and feedback loops. Systems model components were informed by attributes known to influence children's independent mobility, related qualitative findings, and the development of a framework that could lend itself to multilevel modelling approaches. This systems model may provide a useful structure for identifying how best to develop and monitor interventions to halt the declining rates of children's independent mobility.

Rethinking Children's Independent Mobility

The concept of “children's independent mobility,” which originates in a study carried out between 1971 and 1990, underpins much of the research on children's mobilities. The study used particular criteria, based on parental determination of children's abilities and freedoms, to construct a notion of independence. This article contributes to previous work challenging the assumptions underlying this conceptualization of independence and suggests a rethinking of children's mobilities to more firmly incorporate children's agency and imagination. It does so first by critically reviewing existing scholarship and second by engaging with an example of a fictional story, Emil and the Detectives, which itself sets out to privilege both of these key aspects of children's mobilities.

Suspicious minds: Can features of the local neighbourhood ease parents' fears about stranger danger?

Declines in children's independent mobility are frequently attributed to parents' fears about stranger danger, yet there is limited understanding of the factors that might aggravate (or ease) these concerns. We examined the social and built environment correlates of parents': (1) fears about strangers harming their child; and (2) perceptions of the likelihood this would actually happen. We also tested whether associations differed by area socio-economic status (SES) as parents in low income neighbourhoods, typically with more crime, may hold greater fears for their children's safety. Results suggest that regardless of SES, neighbourhood features that encouraged pedestrians, whilst minimising vehicle traffic, were most conducive to parents perceiving a safer neighbourhood. The natural surveillance generated by a more walkable neighbourhood may help alleviate parents' fears about strangers.

The Impact of Bandung City's Rapid Development on children's Independent Mobility and Access to Friendly Play Environments

This study explored the extent to which the enormous development in Bandung City, Indonesia has some bearing on local children as the youngest inhabitants. In particular, it focused on the issue of children's independent mobility and the availability of friendly play environments in children's neighbourhoods. The result of this study showed that the development of Bandung City has created a disparity in access regarding children's opportunities for mobility as well as participation in friendly play environments. This study identified that many children were allowed to visit two places — local shops and the local mosque — without accompanying elders. This study also recognised children's desires to have appropriately designed play spaces, such as parks that are equipped with play equipment and rich in nature. Thus, this study argues the necessity to preserve the remaining and add a significant number of new, free, outdoor play spaces in the city.

Determinants of children's independent mobility in Hong Kong

This study examines children's independent mobility (CIM) among primary school students during their home-school journeys in Hong Kong. It represents an empirical study to assess the impact of individual, family and environmental determinants in influencing the level of CIM. Using territory-wide travel diary data from the Travel Characteristic Survey 2002 (TCS02), logistic regression modeling is used to understand the key factors associated with an increased level of CIM among children in the city. The present study found that approximately one-third of school journeys were conducted by children on their own. CIM was highly associated with the distance to school, the age group of children, median household income, family structure, working status of mothers, employment of domestic helper, neighborhood settlement types and density of school places. These findings can provide input to strategies for promoting an increased level of CIM to improve children's well-being. Language: en

Sedentary behaviour as a risk factor for cardiovascular diseases in pediatric age

The term “sedentary” has historically been used to refer to individuals with low physical activity levels or not meeting some criterion level of physical activity. According to the recent findings, sedentary behaviour has been defined not simply as the absence of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, but as a class of behaviours (e.g. sitting, watching TV or playing video games) characterized by little physical movement and low energy expenditure (≤ 1.5 metabolic equivalents –METs-) [1]. Recent evidences suggest that sedentary is a distinct risk factors for chronic diseases including cardiometabolic diseases [2]. In Western countries sedentary time increased dramatically since 1960s [3]. Schools, homes, and public spaces have been re-engineered minimizing physical activity and contributing to reduce children independent mobility. [4] Moreover the new media (eg. computer and videogames) occupy a high proportion of leisure-time of children and youth. Sedentary behavior can be assessed using both indirect (questionnaires) and direct measurement tools (accelerometers). These methods assess different aspects of sedentary: while self- and proxy-report questionnaires mainly focused on common sedentary behaviours (eg. watching TV), accelerometers better estimate the individual’s total sedentary profile. Therefore in clinical studies the concurrent use of both strategies should be encouraged [5]. In pediatric age, studies have demonstrated that spending excessive time engaging in sedentary behaviors, independent from overall physical activity levels, is adversely associated with adiposity and other cardiometabolic risk factors such as lipid profile, blood pressure and central obesity [5,6]. In particular, the self-reported screen time appears to be more strongly associated with these risk factors than the total sedentary time assessed by accelerometers. One potential explanation could be that certain forms of sedentary activities (TV viewing and more in general screen-based activities) promote the excess of food intake and thus a positive energy balance. Research community should continue to accrue knowledge about the impact of sedentary on health in the pediatric age. Efforts should be done to promote deliberate physical activity and to decrease sedentary behaviours in order to maximize health benefits since childhood.

Measures of outdoor play and independent mobility in children and youth: A methodological review.

Declines in children's outdoor play have been documented globally, which are partly due to heightened restrictions around children's independent mobility. Literature on outdoor play and children's independent mobility is increasing, yet no paper has summarized the various methodological approaches used. A methodological review could highlight most commonly used measures and comprehensive research designs that could result in more standardized methodological approaches. Methodological review. A standardized protocol guided a methodological review of published research on measures of outdoor play and children's independent mobility in children and youth (0-18 years). Online searches of 8 electronic databases were conducted and studies included if they contained a subjective/objective measure of outdoor play or children's independent mobility. References of included articles were scanned to identify additional articles. Twenty-four studies were included on outdoor play, and twenty-three on children's independent mobility. Study designs were diverse. Common objective measures included accelerometry, global positioning systems and direct observation; questionnaires, surveys and interviews were common subjective measures. Focus groups, activity logs, monitoring sheets, travel/activity diaries, behavioral maps and guided tours were also utilized. Questionnaires were used most frequently, yet few studies used the same questionnaire. Five studies employed comprehensive, mixed-methods designs. Outdoor play and children's independent mobility have been measured using a wide variety of techniques, with only a few studies using similar methodologies. A standardized methodological approach does not exist. Future researchers should consider including both objective measures (accelerometry and global positioning systems) and subjective measures (questionnaires, activity logs, interviews), as more comprehensive designs will enhance understanding of each multidimensional construct. Creating a standardized methodological approach would improve study comparisons.

Children's (in)dependent mobility in Portugal

To characterize children's independent mobility in Portugal, by studying the influence of age, sex, school type (primary/secondary) and location (urban/rural). To explore associations between mobility licences and children's actual independent mobility. Cross-sectional study of 1099 children between 8 and 15 years of age and their parents. Children attended primary (n=660, 49% boys, 69% urban) and secondary (n=439, 43% boys, 72% urban) schools. The Portuguese version of the child independent mobility survey (Policy Studies Institute, London) was completed. Parents reported the mobility licences granted to their children. Children reported their independent mobility on school journeys and on weekends. Differences were examined in mobility licences and independent mobility by sex, urban/rural setting and primary/secondary schools. Multiple logistic regression models examined the associations between different variables and actual independent mobility. Secondary school children are granted more licences and have greater levels of independent mobility than primary school children. Only 21% of primary school children and 45% of secondary school children come home from school actively and independently. Overall, sex does not influence the licences granted to children in Portugal but boys have greater levels of independent mobility during the weekends than girls. Children in rural settings report engaging in more activities during the weekend. The number of mobility licences granted to the child was identified as predictor for actual independent mobility on school days and during the weekend. Portuguese children lack independent mobility. Complementary qualitative research will be important to inform about the better practices to tackle this problem.

The freedom to explore: examining the influence of independent mobility on weekday, weekend and after-school physical activity behaviour in children living in urban and inner-suburban neighbourhoods of varying socioeconomic status

BackgroundChildren’s independent mobility (CIM) is critical to healthy development in childhood. The physical layout and social characteristics of neighbourhoods can impact opportunities for CIM. While global evidence is mounting on CIM, to the authors’ knowledge, Canadian data on CIM and related health outcomes (i.e., physical activity (PA) behaviour) are missing. The purpose of this study was to examine if CIM is related to multiple characteristics of accelerometry-measured PA behaviour (total PA, light PA, moderate-to-vigorous PA, time spent sedentary) and whether associations between CIM and PA behaviour systematically vary by place of residence, stratifying by gender and type of day/period (weekdays, after-school, weekend).MethodsParticipants were recruited through Project BEAT (Built Environment and Active Transport; http://www.beat.utoronto.ca). Children (n = 856) were stratified into four neighbourhood classifications based on the period of neighbourhood development (urban built environment (BE) (old BE) versus inner-suburban BE (new BE)) and socioeconomic status (SES; low SES and high SES). Physical activity was measured via accelerometry (ActiGraph GT1M). CIM was assessed via parental report and two categories were created (low CIM, n = 332; high CIM, n = 524). A series of two-factor ANOVAs were used to determine gender-specific differences in PA for weekdays, weekend days and the after-school period, according to level of CIM, across four neighbourhood classifications.ResultsChildren who were granted at least some independent mobility (high CIM) had more positive PA profiles across the school week, during the after-school period, and over the weekend; they were also less sedentary. The influence of CIM on PA behaviour was particularly salient during the after-school period. Associations of CIM with PA varied by gender, and also by neighbourhood classification. CIM seemed to matter more in urban neighbourhoods for boys and suburban neighbourhoods for girls.ConclusionOur findings highlight the importance of independent mobility to multiple characteristics of children’s PA behaviour across the week. Furthermore, they emphasize that independent mobility-activity relationships need to be considered by gender and the type of neighbourhood independent mobility is offered in. Future work will focus on developing a predictive model of CIM that could be used to inform decision-making around alleviating barriers to CIM.

The impact of parents’ fear of strangers and perceptions of informal social control on children's independent mobility

Declines in children's independent mobility are commonly attributed to parents’ fear of strangers, yet few empirical studies have investigated this relationship. We examined: (1) the impact of parents’ fear of strangers on children's independent mobility; and (2) whether informal social control (i.e., parents’ confidence that other residents would look out for local children) mitigated any association. Gender stratified logistic regression models tested these associations for 10–12 year-olds and their parents (n=1231) in Perth, Australia. For girls, parental fear of strangers was associated with lower odds of independent mobility (OR=0.71, p=0.002), and informal social control and other social and built environment variables had little attenuating influence. This pattern was consistent for boys; however odds ratios were lower and statistical significance weaker. Initiatives that target parental fears combined with interventions that normalise children's walking may help increase independent mobility.

Does the walkability of neighbourhoods affect children's independent mobility, independent of parental, socio-cultural and individual factors?

The association between neighbourhood walkability and children's independent mobility using an ecological approach is relatively unexplored. In 2007, 1480 10- to 12-year-old children (and 1314 parents) attending low and high walkable schools across Perth, Western Australia, completed surveys. Objective built environment, social-cultural and individual-level factors were explored. High neighbourhood walkability predicted girls' independent mobility. However, girls and boys were more likely to be independently mobile if they and their parents were confident that they could travel independently. Providing safe, walkable neighbourhoods – particularly for girls – combined with strategies to improve children's skills to safely navigate their neighbourhood may increase independent mobility.