Independent Group Contingency Research Articles

A systematic literature review of group contingencies with adults

AbstractA group contingency is one in which a common consequence (e.g., a reinforcer or a punisher) is contingent on the behavior of one member of a group, the behavior of part of a group, or the behavior of every member in a group. The most commonly used group contingencies in behavior‐analytic practice and research include interdependent, independent, and dependent group contingencies. Group contingencies are advantageous for multiple reasons, including their versatility, as they have been demonstrated to be effective across individuals, settings, and behaviors. Additionally, they are efficient as they can facilitate behavior change in multiple individuals at once. Previous literature reviews have supported the use of group contingencies with children; however, there has yet to be a systematic literature review conducted on group contingencies with adults. Because group contingencies have multiple benefits, it is important that a literature review be conducted to assess the evidence of these interventions when implemented with adults. A literature review of studies utilizing group contingencies with adults was conducted. Trends across studies, the efficacy of different group contingencies, clinical implications, and recommendations for future research are provided.

Evaluation of a Novel Independent Group Contingency in an Alternative School

Evaluation of a Novel Independent Group Contingency in an Alternative School

Implementing the classroom password game via telehealth among students with intellectual disabilities

AbstractEducational institutions are constantly aiming to better meet the academic needs of individuals with disabilities. As more students with disabilities attend postsecondary education settings researchers need to better understand how to apply both academic and behavioral interventions to better serve this population. Group contingencies are widely popular among educational settings to increase academic engagement and manage classroom behavior. More specifically, the classroom password is an independent group contingency intervention, often utilized in classroom settings to increase academic engagement and decrease disruptive and off‐task behaviors. Utilizing a single case design withdrawal design, researchers sought to evaluate the effectiveness of the classroom password intervention to increase academic engagement and decrease disruptive and off‐task behavior. Due to the COVID‐19 pandemic, researchers utilized the classroom password via telehealth. Overall, the current study's results demonstrate that the intervention was effective at increasing academic engagement and decreasing disruptive and off‐task behavior. Furthermore, the intervention was rated high for social validity among most participants. Future studies should continue to explore the effectiveness, generalizability, and maintenance of these results.

Discussion and Conceptual Analysis of Four Group Contingencies for Behavioral Process Improvement in an ABA Service Delivery Quality Framework.

Applied behavior analysis (ABA) organizations that provide services to children with autism can apply contingencies to improve employee performance or behavioral processes. Such contingencies may be especially important for maximizing ABA service delivery quality (ASDQ). For some behavioral processes, group contingencies applied to the behavior of individuals within the process may be more appropriate than individualized contingencies. In the history of the profession, behavior analysts have used group contingencies at the operant level of selection, such as independent, interdependent, and dependent group contingencies. However, recent experimental work in culturo-behavioral science suggests the metacontingency, an analogue of the operant contingency at the cultural level of selection, can also control the behavior of individuals in a group. This article discusses how such group-oriented contingencies could be used by managers in organizations in behavioral process improvement efforts to target key performance indicators of quality in an ASDQ framework. The paper ends with a discussion of limitations and future research.

Comparative Effects of Interdependent and Independent Group Contingencies for Pre-service Teachers in a College Classroom

Comparative Effects of Interdependent and Independent Group Contingencies for Pre-service Teachers in a College Classroom

Evaluating the independent group contingency: “Mystery Student” on improving behaviors in head start classrooms

AbstractAn increasing number of preschool children exhibit challenging behavior in the classroom. Children enrolled in Head Start are particularly at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders due to numerous risk factors they face. Unfortunately, some preschool teachers are ill‐equipped to manage the challenging behaviors that preschool children exhibit. The current study investigated the effects of an independent group contingency, the Mystery Student Intervention, on improving preschool children's classroom behaviors. An ABAB withdrawal design was employed to determine the Mystery Student Intervention's effectiveness for decreasing disruptive behaviors and increasing appropriate behaviors in three Head Start classrooms. Results indicated that class‐wide aggregate disruptive behavior decreased, and appropriate behavior increased during the intervention phases for all three classrooms. Furthermore, teachers rated the Mystery Student Intervention as socially valid. Results of this study add to the limited research base on group contingencies in preschool settings.

Independent Contingency and Token Economy at Recess to Reduce Aggression

School-wide behavior problems can vary significantly from structured to unstructured settings. Often problem behaviors can spike during unstructured times such as lunch and recess and the use of Tier 1 positive behavior interventions and supports (PBIS) can be used to reduce student behavior problems in these settings. Using a token economy as an independent group contingency, this study aimed to reduce student aggression in an elementary school during lunch/recess periods of the day. Students had the opportunity to earn school “dollars” during recess for demonstrating prosocial behaviors in which they were told could be exchanged for incentives at a student store (backup reinforcers). Across all grade levels, student levels of aggression were reduced between 50 and 100% from baseline levels in a 3-month period. However, as effect sizes indicated, only some intervention groups showed significant reduction of aggression. Despite the limitation of access to backup reinforcers, we theorized that the effectiveness of the present intervention was due to socially mediated contingencies among student group members as a result of receiving dollars.

Examining the Generalization of a Combined Independent and Interdependent Group Contingency for Students With Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

Using an ABAB withdrawal design, the study evaluated the direct and generalized effects of a combined independent and interdependent group contingency on the engagement and disruptive behavior of two groups of students enrolled in an alternative school serving students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Class 1 included seven middle school students and Class 2 included eight high school students. For both classes, systematic direct observation behavior data were collected both in the targeted class period and a second class period identified by teachers as also having high rates of inappropriate behavior. Following baseline, the group contingency was introduced in the targeted period only and then withdrawn before being re-introduced. Visual analysis indicates that implementation of the group contingency led to improvements in classroom behavior in the targeted class period for both groups of students. Also, improvements in student behavior were observed in secondary settings that shared common environmental variables that may have promoted generalization. Discussion focuses on implications for practice and future research examining methods for promoting generalization of behavior change.

Assessing the Differential Effects of Known and Mystery Rewards in a Preschool-Based Group Contingency

Group contingencies have been used successfully to modify a variety of behaviors for children with diverse characteristics across multiple settings. However, these interventions have not been applied to increase social interactions (SI) between typically developing children and those with multiple or severe disabilities (MSD). Furthermore, little research has been conducted to examine whether differential outcomes are associated with the type of reward used (known or mystery). The purpose of this study was to examine the differential effects of known versus mystery rewards on the SI of preschool children with and without MSD within an independent group contingency. The findings indicated that although there were no differences in levels of SI between reward types, both were superior to the baseline condition and were viewed as socially valid by classroom teachers and naive raters. In addition, this study was conducted with high methodological quality exceeding that of previous group contingency research conducted in preschool settings and of other studies examining the differential effects of known and mystery rewards. The results provide meaningful information regarding practices that support children with MSD and add to the group contingency literature.

An Application of the Group-Oriented Concurrent-Chains Arrangement.

Group contingencies are a set of behavior management procedures used to improve the behavior of several students simultaneously. Despite evidence supporting the effectiveness of each group contingency in managing academic and challenging behaviors, the decision to select one group contingency over another may be difficult for teachers, especially if similar efficacy is found. In this study, we compared the effectiveness of three group contingencies on disruptive behavior with 13 typically developing eighth-grade students. Results showed that all three group contingencies reduced levels of disruptive behavior from baseline levels. We then assessed the students' individual preferences for the group contingencies using a group-oriented concurrent-chains procedure. Most students showed preference for one of the group contingencies, and most preferred the independent group contingency. These results demonstrated that the group-oriented concurrent-chains procedure was an effective and efficient method of identifying individual preferences for behavior-change procedures in a classroom setting.

A comparison of group contingencies on academic compliance.

We used a reversal design with an embedded multielement design to compare the effects of an independent group contingency and a randomized dependent group contingency on compliance with assigned literacy worksheets in a first-grade general education classroom. Nine participants were selected based on low levels of compliance in baseline or by teacher identification. Results indicated that both group contingencies increased compliance relative to baseline for the majority of participants. The independent condition produced higher levels of compliance for four students and the randomized dependent condition produced higher levels of compliance for one student. For four students, the two group contingencies were equally effective. A preference assessment indicated that the majority of target students preferred the randomized dependent condition and the majority of nontarget students preferred the independent condition. A number of potential explanations for our preference findings, including the possible role of obtained reinforcement, are discussed.

Tootling With a Randomized Independent Group Contingency to Improve High School Classwide Behavior

The present study examined the effects of tootling, a peer-mediated positive behavior intervention, on students’ classwide disruptive and academically engaged behavior in three general education high school classrooms. A withdrawal design was used to assess the effects of the intervention. Students wrote tootles anonymously on paper slips and placed them into a marked container. A randomized independent group contingency was used to reward students. At the end of the class period, teachers randomly drew three of the submitted tootles and rewarded students about whom the tootles were written. Teachers also randomly drew the names of two students who submitted a tootle and rewarded them as well. All three classrooms displayed decreases in classwide disruptive behavior and increases in academically engaged behavior during intervention phases. Effect size calculations for both disruptive and academically engaged behavior indicated very large overall effects. The results of this study suggest that a modified tootling procedure utilizing a randomized independent group contingency can be an effective intervention for teachers to improve the classwide behavior of students in high school classrooms. Teachers found the intervention at least moderately socially valid and students rated it highly acceptable.

Group Contingencies to Increase Appropriate Behaviors in the Classroom: Tips for Success

Group contingencies are effective classroom-based interventions that can be used to increase the academic engagement of students with disabilities. This article defines and outlines examples of dependent, independent, and interdependent group contingencies. In addition, tips for success, including making reinforcement accessible to students, pairing reinforcement with behavior-specific praise, integrating self-monitoring, and providing a visual display of progress toward reinforcement, are discussed. Strategies for preventing challenges to implementation are also discussed.

THE CLASSROOM PASSWORD: A CLASS-WIDE INTERVENTION TO INCREASE ACADEMIC ENGAGEMENT

The present study investigated the effectiveness of a novel class-wide intervention, the Classroom Password, for increasing the academic engaged behavior of middle school students. The effectiveness of an independent group contingency was evaluated using a concurrent multiple baseline design across three seventh- and eighth-grade classrooms. Results indicated that the intervention was effective across all three classrooms in increasing students’ academic engagement, or on-task behavior, as evidenced by visual analysis and moderate to large effect sizes. Decreases in disruptive behavior were also observed across all three classrooms. Off-task behavior was not substantially affected in any of the three classrooms. The intervention received mixed ratings by the classroom teachers regarding its social validity. Results of the present study suggest that the Classroom Password may be an effective class-wide intervention for increasing the academically engaged behavior and decreasing the disruptive behavior of middle school students during instructional time.

A Group Contingency Plus Self-Management Intervention Targeting At-Risk Secondary Students' Class-Work and Active Engagement.

The purpose of the present study is to show that an independent group contingency (GC) combined with self-management strategies and randomized-reinforcer components can increase the amount of written work and active classroom responding in high school students. Three remedial reading classes and a total of 15 students participated in this study. Students used self-management strategies during independent reading time to increase the amount of writing in their reading logs. They used self-monitoring strategies to record whether or not they performed expected behaviors in class. A token economy using points and tickets was included in the GC to provide positive reinforcement for target responses. The results were analyzed through visual inspection of graphs and effect size computations and showed that the intervention increased the total amount of written words in the students' reading logs and overall classroom and individual student academic engagement.

Group contingency interventions with children--1980-2010: a meta-analysis.

The present study sought to evaluate the efficacy of group contingency procedures via meta-analysis. A total of 182 studies published between 1980 and 2010 were identified via PsychInfo that included group contingency as a keyword. Studies that met inclusion criteria (e.g., single-subject design, school-aged children; N = 50), were coded and effect sizes were calculated. Results strongly support the efficacy of group contingencies with an overall effect size of 3.41. Types of group contingencies were also evaluated for dependent group contingencies (ES = 3.75, n = 11), independent group contingencies (ES = 3.27, n = 8), and interdependent group contingencies (ES = 2.88, n = 35). These results clearly establish all varieties of group contingencies as efficacious for a wide range of target behaviors with school-aged children. Results are discussed with regard to practical implications.

EFFECTS OF AN INDEPENDENT GROUP CONTINGENCY SPECIAL ACTIVITY PROGRAM ON INAPPROPRIATE BEHAVIOR IN A RESIDENTIAL SETTING

Group contingencies targeting inappropriate behavior may be especially useful in residential settings where the staff to client ratio makes individualized behavior plan implementation difficult. The purpose of the current study was to evaluate an independent group contingency on inappropriate behavior in a secure residential facility for offenders with disabilities. The independent group contingency involved differential reinforcement of low rate and differential reinforcement of other behavior via access to a special activity (a catered weekly lunch). The group contingency was alternated with non‐activity weeks for a total of 48 weeks. Results were analyzed across and within residents and showed lower overall rates of inappropriate behavior on activity weeks than non‐activity weeks for the majority of residents. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Internet-based group contingency management to promote abstinence from cigarette smoking: A feasibility study

Background In contingency management (CM) interventions, monetary consequences are contingent on evidence of drug abstinence. Typically, these consequences are contingent on individual performance. Consequences contingent on group performance may promote social support (e.g., praise). Methods Thus, to combine social support with the monetary incentives of CM, we integrated independent and interdependent group contingencies of reinforcement into an Internet-based intervention to promote smoking abstinence. Breath carbon monoxide (CO) measures were compared between treatment conditions and a baseline control condition. Thirteen participants were divided into 5 groups or “teams” ( n = 2–3 per team). Each participant submitted video recordings of CO measurement twice daily via the Internet. Teammates could monitor each other's progress and communicate with one another through an online peer support forum. During a 4-day tapering condition, vouchers exchangeable for goods were contingent on gradual reductions in breath CO. During a 10-day abstinence induction condition, vouchers were contingent on abstinence (CO ≤ 4 ppm). In both treatment conditions, concurrent independent and interdependent group contingencies were arranged (i.e., a mixed contingency arrangement). Results Less than 1% of CO samples submitted during baseline were ≤ 4 ppm, compared to 57% submitted during abstinence induction. Sixty-five percent of participants’ comments on the online peer support forum were rated as positive by independent observers. Participants rated the intervention favorably on a treatment acceptability questionnaire. Conclusion The results suggest that the intervention is feasible and acceptable for promoting abstinence from cigarette smoking.

A Comparison of Independent, Interdependent, and Dependent Group Contingencies With Randomized Reinforcers to Increase Reading Fluency

Fluency, or the rate at which a student reads, is developed in the early stages of literacy and has been shown to correlate with comprehension. A myriad of interventions have been developed to increase fluency. Group contingencies are one of these that in particular have shown some positive effects on reading fluency. Advantages to using them are that they are practical, efficient, and economical for teachers to use when monitoring a target behavior. This investigation employs an alternating treatments design to compare the effectiveness of independent, interdependent, and dependent group contingencies with randomized reinforcers on reading fluency. The results reveal moderate effects of all three contingencies on measures of reading fluency. Group contingencies are an important and increasingly popular intervention; however, the choice of which contingency to use is based on the unique aspects of the classroom.

Independent and Interdependent Group Contingencies

Independent and interdependent group contingencies have many applied advantages for influencing behaviors in school settings. However, there are negative side effects associated with these group oriented contingencies. A scenario is presented that illustrates some negative side effects of independent and interdependent group oriented contingencies. Specific recommendations for altering group oriented contingencies to reduce these negative side effects and increase the probability that teachers will use these contingencies to increase students' academic performance and prosocial behaviors follows the scenario.