Struggle For Independence Research Articles

Marxism and Ukraine’s Struggle for Independence and Self-Determination

Abstract This article traces the historic development of socialist thought on the importance of upholding independence and self-determination for oppressed nations. The examination starts with Marx on independence for Ireland and Lenin’s political and theoretical principals on nations oppressed by the Tsarist dictatorship. It proceeds to Ho Chi Minh’s address to the Comintern, Chou En Lai at the Bandung Conference, and Mao’s writings on contradictions. This article then applies these principals to the Russian invasion of Ukraine, debates in the Left, and the need to support Ukraine.

The Interaction of Substate Actors with the Global Public:

This article aims to explain the external persuasive actions of the Aceh Provincial Government in maintaining its Islamic identity through “The Light of Aceh” branding towards the global community. This action is referred to as paradiplomacy. As one of the subnational actors in Indonesia, Aceh Province is an area that has social and political dynamics from before independence to the present. Aceh has a distinctive identity and culture known as Serambi Mekah. Because of its efforts to maintain this identity, Aceh once fought for independence from Indonesia. Aceh's paradiplomacy certainly has different dynamics. However, the effort to maintain its identity has been a struggle from the past to the present. In the independence era, Aceh tried to fight for its identity with the struggle for independence, but in the post-independence era, Aceh fought for its regional interests through the framework of Regional Autonomy by establishing foreign relations and diplomacy to the global community. This research uses the theories of paradiplomacy and social identity to explain the persuasive actions taken by the Aceh Provincial Government through paradiplomacy to maintain its social identity. This research uses a qualitative method with data collection from interviews with relevant informants, documentation studies and internet-based studies. The results of this research show that the Aceh Provincial Government's paradiplomacy efforts to maintain its Islamic identity are carried out through branding “The Light of Aceh” by incorporating Islamic values in various components of the branding such as the main values of branding, logo philosophy, and branding commercial advertising videos. These values are socialised to the global community through various international activities by showcasing culture in dances, poems of clothing at international festivals, so that Aceh is better known by the global community with its Islamic identity.

Considering the relevance of Jiddu Krishnamurti to contemporary Indian education: In conversation with the thought of Gert Biesta

Education was a compelling symbol in India’s struggle for independence representing as it did, empowerment, transformation, and liberation. India’s contemporary education system, influenced by neoliberalism has, however, largely focused on curricula, skills, literacy, and educational attainment, while overlooking the concepts of freedom or humanisation advocated by Indian educational philosophers. This article places pre-eminent philosopher of education, Gert Biesta, in conversation with Indian thinker, Jiddu Krishnamurti. The focus of this exchange is to consider, from the perspective of Biesta, the aims and conceptions of education, as proposed by Krishnamurti. Krishnamurti strongly emphasised the importance of a learner-centred approach that would cultivate critical thinking, enable learners to gain a deeper understanding of the integrated processes of life, and provide them an environment for realising their full human potential. The aim of Krishnamurti’s education philosophy was to empower the individual to be free, and capable of dealing with life as a whole, based on the conception of collaborative learning, self-awareness, moral virtues and the ability to live well. Though he acknowledges the importance of technique, curricula, and attainment, Biesta’s approach emphasises that students are not objects who need to be trained. Rather, their development as people with the discernment to know when to act and when to refrain from acting, is a critical function of education. Through its examination of the perspectives of Krishnamurti, from the contemporary standpoint of Biesta’s articulation of the purposes of education, this article argues for the relevance of Krishnamurti’s educational philosophy in India’s current educational realities.

Analysis of the Myth on Western Aid to Lithuanian Partisans

There were many factors which affected the emergence of the statement on “western aid”: the Soviet propaganda, communist terror, Lithuanian partisans, Western radio stations, Western intelligence services and others. In order to understand how the hope to receive help from the West spread among partisans, the geopolitical and historical space of the time must be assessed from several perspectives – starting from the dynamics of international relations after WWII finishing with the mentality of freedom fighters and the factors that shaped the outlook of partisans as individuals. In the 1940s, five western radio stations could be received in the territory of Soviet Lithuania: Vatican Radio, BBC, Voice of America, Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty. The British radio station BBC never had a Lithuanian language service and did not broadcast in Lithuanian, but partisans could listen to broadcasts in the Russian language. As testified by the partisan underground press and memoirs, the BBC was one of the main sources of objective information from the West. As the BBC had strict rules for its programmes, this broadcaster could not contribute to the dissemination of the myth regarding Western aid to the occupied countries. On 16 February 1951, the US Voice of America started broadcasting in the Lithuanian language. Due to its association with the Department of State Security, this radio station was treated by the Soviet Union as a tool of official US policy. Because of its late start in broadcasting in the Lithuanian language and dependence on the dynamics of the US–USSR relationship, the Voice of America could not have initiated the idea of Western aid to the partisans. The Soviet Union was most critical of the US radio stations Radio Liberty and Radio Free Europe, which started broadcasts in the Lithuanian language only in the early seventies, when the resistance struggle was long over and the strict radio rules and censorship did not allow these radio stations to contribute to the dissemination of the myth on Western aid. The belief of partisans that Lithuania would be freed, based on international documents (Freedom Charter) and the well-known geopolitical situation, could have determined the hope that soon the countries of the East and the West would be at war. The development of the Western aid myth, therefore, was formed by the model of historical consciousness of freedom fighters and the culture of historical memory. After WWII, people in Lithuania not only remembered the interwar period of Lithuanian independence, but many also participated in the armed defence of the state of Lithuania in 1918–1919. Participants of the independence struggle still remembered their own help to the re-established state, German volunteers, American legion of volunteers, and the 1941 June Uprising, which succeeded due to the outbreak of WWII. The memory of recent events was favourable for the emergence of the said beliefs of Lithuanian partisans. Historical images and ideas preserved in the memories of the people of that time influenced the collective consciousness and helped partisans to remain persuaded and contributed to their hope that in the event of war between former allies, Western countries would liberate Lithuania.

Knowledge and emancipation

This essay explores Latin America's struggle for epistemic independence against dominant Global North informational flows in science and technology. It addresses the impact of knowledge production domination on the region, including epistemic injustice and academic imperialism, proposing strategies for bolstering science through epistemic sovereignty. It emphasizes higher education's pivotal role in a nation's sovereignty by fostering knowledge production, global citizenship, and intellectual leadership. However, in today's multipolar world, universities in less developed countries often serve as conduits for Global North knowledge, perpetuating their agendas. The consolidation of digital environments and globalization further exacerbates this issue, leading to an anglophone bias in scientific knowledge production, diminishing the visibility and relevance of Latin American scientific contributions—a form of epistemic injustice. The essay contextualizes the concept of epistemic sovereignty, highlighting ongoing resistance efforts in Latin American higher education against knowledge production dominance and instances of epistemic injustice.

National Origins of International Solidarity Movements: Nationalism and International Solidarity for East Timor in Post-Cold War Southeast Asia

Abstract The international solidarity movement for the East Timorese was developed in Southeast Asian nations during the 1990s as ‘the issue of East Timor’ became a primary concern for the ASEAN countries’ civil society. Proponents of liberal democracy have assumed that international solidarity movements for human rights and democracy during the 1990s resulted from the powerful momentum of liberal democracy that universally linked foreign people. However, Michael Hardt, Antonio Negri and their marxist followers have explained these transnational movements as a transnational network that overcomes national borders against the capitalist Empire. Nevertheless, the political history of transnational solidarity movements from East Timor to Southeast Asia in the post-Cold War 1990s makes clear that nationalism has continued to be an ideological driver to link people from different nations. Focusing on the international solidarity for the East Timorese independence struggle, this paper demonstrates a transnational function of nationalism through which international solidarity movements are created, resonate and function. The East Timor international solidarity struggle successfully created a transnational platform through the APCET conferences held in the Philippines, Malaysia and Thailand in the 1990s. Socio-historical analysis of APCET reveals that nationalists in Southeast Asia shared collective memories of national struggles beyond their spaces and times to create a transnational force to support self-determination for the East Timorese. Through its analysis, this article extends the theoretical framework of nationalism that has explained nationalist movements to serve as a more powerful tool to explain international solidarity in the age of globalisation. (247 words)

TEOLOGI PEMBEBASAN PALESTINA

The Theology of Liberation in Palestine has become a phenomenon influencing the dynamics of religion, politics, and identity in Palestine and worldwide. This paper analyzes the connection between Palestinian Liberation Theology and Latin American Liberation Theology, as well as its influence on the perception and participation of Christians in the Palestinian liberation movement. The research method employed is a literature review, focusing on relevant literature search, selection, content analysis, comparison, and critical evaluation. The research findings indicate that Palestinian Liberation Theology shares the same roots as Latin American Liberation Theology, focusing on liberation from oppressive structures and restoring dignity to the oppressed. This theology has strengthened the identity of Palestinian Christians and fostered ecumenical cooperation, motivating them to engage politically in the struggle for Palestinian independence. Practical support from global Christians is reflected in concrete actions and social activities, such as support for the Boycott, Divestment, and Sanctions movement against Israel. Palestinian Liberation Theology has been a source of inspiration and strength for Christians in Palestine and worldwide to advocate for justice and promote sustainable peace in the region.

THE PHILOSOPHY OF FREEDOM AND ITS LIMITS: UKRAINIAN EXPERIENCE OF DEMOCRATIC DEVELOPMENT

The purpose of this research is a philosophical reflection on the category of freedom in the context of Ukraine’s democratic development, with a focus on its limits in light of current political and social challenges, particularly war and crises. The study analyzes the historical stages of the concept of freedom in Ukraine, the legal and ethical constraints placed on it, and the existential dimension of responsibility tied to individual choice. The research methods include critical analysis of philosophical and political works, synthesis of approaches from different philosophical schools (particularly liberalism and existentialism), comparative analysis of freedom and responsibility concepts, and systematic analysis of the legal and ethical challenges facing modern Ukrainian society. The results of the study reveal that the concept of freedom in Ukraine has specific historical features, related to the ongoing struggle for national independence, and dynamically changes under the influence of external threats and internal political processes. It is determined that the limits of freedom are shaped not only by legal norms but also by ethical and societal factors that actively shape Ukrainian public discourse. Special attention is given to the existential dimension of freedom as responsibility, which manifests in complex moral choices in the context of war. The scientific novelty of the article lies in the combination of historical, legal, and existentialist approaches to understanding freedom in the context of Ukrainian democratic development, providing deeper insights into the relationship between freedom and responsibility during periods of social crises. The theoretical significance of the work lies in expanding the philosophical understanding of the category of freedom within the Ukrainian context, its interaction with legal and ethical norms, which is essential for further research in political philosophy and law.

ЧЕХИЯДАҒЫ ҚАЙТА ӨРЛЕУ ӘДЕБИЕТІНІҢ ЕРЕКШЕЛІКТЕРІ

The article is devoted to understanding the significance of Renaissance literature in the Czech Republic. Humanistic activity, which originated in the Czech Republic, occupies an important place in the history of the Slavic Renaissance. In the XV century, hatred of papal domination and the struggle for independence intensified in the Czech Republic, where the activities of the Hussites flourished. Czech literature of this era had didactic and religious content. The economic development of the state has changed the situation of cities. Nevertheless, this allowed Italian humanism to become more widespread. The Hussite movement played an important role in the struggle against foreign domination and feudal arbitrariness. But since this act was shrouded in a religious veil, the patriotic psalms were also in a religious spirit, they were performed accompanied by music. The struggle of the Hussites against the Catholics and the reform movements of this period cannot distinguish the main features of the Czech literature of the Renaissance. The main features of the Renaissance are vividly manifested in world culture, based on the foundations of ancient society, in art reflecting the achievements of the body and soul, depicting the joys of life. The first stage of the development of Czech humanism corresponds to the period when Petrarch was in Prague (1356). Since that time, interest in the "new style" of Italian poetry begins to manifest itself. The article also argues that the historical and political events taking place in Czech society during that period also had a great influence on the development of literature.

The Revolution Will (Not?) Be Colourised: Photographs from the Indonesian National Revolution (1945–49) on Social Media

This article critically reflects on the practice of colourisation in present-day recirculations of photographs originally made during the armed Indonesian struggle for independence from Dutch colonial rule (1945–49). The article focuses on digital colour manipulations of photographs disseminated on social media platforms to address ethical and methodological debates dividing academic and amateur historians on the modification of historic photographs. I compare the notable lack of controversy around colourised photographs that show the violence of the Indonesian National Revolution to the heated debates kindled by manipulated images of victims of the Holocaust and the Khmer Rouge regime. ‘Genocide’ arguably remains a special category for determining whether conflict photographs can be modified. I show how Indonesian colourisers fail to interrogate the propaganda origins of the Dutch-made photographs they circulate on social media. For Indonesian social media users, however, deep context and detailed metadata for such photographs are less relevant for generating meaning than debates about how such photographs connect to the unfinished projects of decolonisation in the Netherlands and Indonesia.

Nexus between India and Bangladesh in the Liberation War of Bangladesh: Consequences of International Agreement

The support of India and the Soviet Union was very important in the liberation war of Bangladesh, 1971 and the then East Pakistan witnessed a brutal struggle for independence. Amidst the liberation war a triangle web of international alliances and strategic moves attempt to create hegemony in this region. However, it is very urgent to understand the background of why and how India was active, and its attitude was positive in the liberation war of Bangladesh. The present study will investigate these research questions through secondary sources. This present study is qualitative in nature and historical events were explained leveraging the decision making and games theory as theoretical framework. The historic Indo-Soviet Treaty had an immediate impact on the decisive battle between India and Pakistan in the eastern war theater. This paper deals with the explanation for establishing a treaty that was signed between the Soviet Union and India. A focus has been made on the reasons for India's diplomatic role in the liberation war of Bangladesh. This paper also highlights that the friendship treaty between these two countries was not signed to help and aid East Pakistan, but its background prevailed in the 1954 SEATO treaty and aftermath in 1955 Bandung conference that made close friendship ties with USSR and India. Geopolitics, history and international politics played a vital role in signing the treaty that created a nexus between India and Bangladesh during liberation war of Bangladesh.

Whatever happened to Hungarian freedom fighters? Collective memory, collective forgetting, and dissociative collective identity

As the war in Ukraine unfolds, the Hungarian government seems less enthusiastic about the idea of state sovereignty than one might have anticipated given Hungary’s historic past. Moreover, there is a surge of pro-Russian sentiment among government supporters. This is counterintuitive in light of prevailing mnemonic practices which put heavy emphasis on Hungary’s struggle for freedom and independence. The new developments suggest that the role of collective memory in collective identity formation needs to be reconsidered, especially concerning the apparent inhibition of otherwise persistent and widely shared memories. The article discusses the problem in the context of socially shared retrieval-induced forgetting and social identity complexity theory. It puts forward two complementary arguments: (1) this Janus-faced public behaviour might be accounted for by selective commemorative practices of the government and (2) how memories of historical events sustain a shared sense of belonging and continuity is not only contingent on group membership but also on the ever-changing group interest.

Hands Across Australia’s Land Border

Drawing on Indonesian and Dutch newspapers, this article describes how the Australian people and their political leaders were presented in contradictory ways to readers during the West New Guinea dispute. Particularly from 1949 to 1967, at the height of the dispute between the Netherlands and Indonesia over West New Guinea/Irian Barat, Dutch newspapers focused on the nature of Australian colonialism in an increasingly critical manner. The Indonesian press expected Australia – a supporter of its independence struggle and donor of education aid – to sympathise with its claim to the territory of Irian Barat. Sensitive to any signs that Australia sided with the Dutch or that it feared Indonesian ambitions in the region, the Indonesian press was at first displeased by Australia’s policy of ‘neutrality’ and then satisfied that the Australian government would not interfere.

Mapping the Social Lives of The Namibian Review

Abstract Thirty-two editions of The Namibian Review (1976–87) were published by anti-apartheid revolutionaries in a decade of intensifying struggle for independence from the South African occupation of South West Africa. This teaching tool discusses the wider history of political orientations and networks surrounding The Namibian Review, presenting a creative approach to African history research and political education aimed at challenging the ongoing legacies of the colonial imposed borders of the region.

Fiscal and Tax Policy of Bogd Khanate of Mongolia (1911–1919)

Abstract As a result of the prolonged struggle for national independence, the Mongolian people, who endured over two centuries of oppression under Manchurian rule, regained sovereignty in 1911 and established the Republic of Mongolia. During this period, significant economic, social, and political reforms were initiated, laying the groundwork for the national financial system. This article examines the social, political, and economic landscape during the Bogd Khanate of Mongolia. Research into the tax and financial policies implemented during this period was conducted using historical documents and sources. Within the framework of Mongolian governmental financial policies, five ministries were established, accompanied by the enactment and implementation of various regulations about finance, taxation, and customs. Efforts were made to enhance state revenue; however, the accumulation of debt owed to foreign moneylenders and merchants, coupled with the taxation burden on Mongolian citizens, including payments to domestic nobles and religious institutions, exacerbated poverty and economic hardship among the populace. In June 1915, the autonomy of Mongolia, as stipulated in the treaty between Russia, Mongolia, and China, was abolished in 1919, resulting in the reassertion of foreign control over Mongolian governance.

Balkanization vs Europeanization: conceptual deconstruction

The article is dedicated to the deconstruction of the binary opposition between the concepts of “Balkanization” and “Europeanization”. The initial phase of deconstruction entails a critical examination of conventional conceptualizations that reflect power relations between Balkans and Europe. A particular emphasis is placed on the dominant perception of balkanization as a process of fragmentation and barbarization, which is a representation commonly depicted within Western strategic discourse. As an alternative, the authentic concept of balkanization, formulated by Yugoslav avant-guardists during the early twentieth century, is analysed. The avant-guard movement Zenitism proclaimed the slogan of the Balkanization of Europe and featured the figure of Barbarogenious-Decivilizer. This approach not only represents an inversion of the Western perspective on the Balkans, but also draws upon ideas of internationalism and class struggle, deriving inspiration from the experience of the Russian revolution. The concept of Europeanization is examined in both broad and narrow senses - as a notion of modernization and as transformations caused by the institutional influence of the European Union. The concept of europeanization, positioned as a positive project and vision of a better future, stands in contrast to the Balkan past ofthe region. With such as interpretation, the successful implementation ofthe europeanization agenda would entail the complete erasure of Balkan subjectivity and identity. Europeanization is conceptualized as a process of debalkanization. In the concluding phase of deconstruction, during the stage of“reassembly”, an alternative perception ofbalkanization is put forward. In accordance with the ideas of Zenitism and the political experience ofthe Balkan peoples' struggle for independence and the establishment of a common stated, balkanization is perceived as, on the one hand, resistance and rebellion; on the other hand, as a desire to overcome borders and internationalization. Accordingly, europeanization is perceived as a process of construction of homogeneous modern nation-states. It can be argued that fragmentation is indeed a consequence and essence of europeanization.

The photography of José Gómez de la Carrera and the construction of the territorial image of the early Republic of Cuba

This article studies the group of photographs by José Gómez de la Carrera, active in Cuba between 1885 and 1909, which entered the University of Navarra Museum Collection in 2018. With a multidisciplinary approach (heritage studies, art history, visual studies, and history of education), the article addresses the photographs as a visual testimony of important technical, political and cultural changes. After presenting the biography of the photographer – a pioneer of photojournalism and an outstanding war journalist – we study the material, technical and visual characteristics of the subgroup of photographs taken when he accompanied Carlos de la Torre on his scientific expeditions in Cuba. The essay describes the historical and cultural role of these images, which became part of the visual repertoire of the time through educational projects. Taken in a context of struggle for independence, and visually reliant on parameters forged in Romanticism, eventually these photos were featured widely in the first geography textbook of the island for use in primary schools, which, through multiple editions, contributed to the formation of the territorial image of the new Republic.

Habsburg-Lotaringiai Mária Leopoldina főhercegnő élete Brazília függetlenné válásának idején

This study aims to provide a Hungarian-language overview of the life and role of the Austrian Archduchess Leopoldina, who became the first Empress of Brazil and rained at the time of Brazil’s independence. Leopoldina’s marriage to Crown Prince Peter connected the houses of Habsburg-Lorraine and Braganza after the Congress of Vienna. The union aimed to strengthen dynastic, political, and economic ties during the period of monarchical restoration and the Holy Alliance. Leopoldina left behind numerous letters, which have become important historical sources. Despite several books being written about her life, no complete biography has been published in Hungarian. The aim of this study is to fill that gap by presenting Leopoldina’s life in Brazil, exploring her role in the independence struggles, and examining her influence on Austro-Brazilian relations. The study seeks to provide an objective assessment of Leopoldina’s role, avoiding both exaggeration and romantic nostalgia. It relies on international litera ture, letters, diplomatic reports, and other contemporary documents. By investigating the circumstances and experiences of Leopoldina’s trip to Brazil, her contributions to Brazilian independence, and the involvement of Hungarian participants in the expedition, the study aims to determine her impact on shaping political events, and concludes that her cultural influence and popularity still persist in Brazil and Austria today.

Establishing Bandung as a Center of Nationalism: R. A. A. Wiranatakusumah V's Political Policies Amidst the Independence Movement

This study aims to analyze the political policies of R.A.A. Wiranatakusumah V in establishing Bandung as a center of nationalism amidst Indonesia's independence movement. This research uses a literature study method with a historical approach to explore Wiranatakusumah V's role as the Regent of Bandung, including his response to significant events such as the founding of the Indonesian National Party (PNI) and Bung Karno's trial by the Dutch Colonial Landraad. The findings indicate that R.A.A. Wiranatakusumah V's policies successfully made Bandung a region that welcomed the national movement while maintaining harmony between indigenous and colonial groups. This research contributes to a deeper understanding of how inclusive and nationalist political policies can shape a city's identity as a center of the national movement. The study also offers lessons for the younger generation on the importance of leadership that can unite various societal elements in the struggle for independence.

Africa-China Relations and the Issue of South-South Cooperation

Africa-China or Sino-African relations continue to grow stronger. Africa sees China as a partner in development with the global South-South Cooperation. As a measure of friendship, China constructed the African Union headquarters at Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, for free. There has been cooperation between China and African countries. China’s role in Africa during the independence struggles is well noted and its development assistance to the continent has been phenomenal over the years. As Africa and China relations continue, several bottlenecks continue to mar the relationship. This paper highlights the bottlenecks of Africa-China relations by tracing the historical ties between China and African states. It delves into Africa-China relations in terms of South-South Cooperation and China’s foreign policy of non-interference in internal matters of other states. It uses 2019 data to analyze China-Africa trade, investments and revenues accruing to both partners. It concludes with how China-African states can achieve mutual benefits.