Increase In Surface Temperature Research Articles

More biomass burning aerosol is being advected westward over the southern tropical Atlantic since 2003.

Each year, agricultural fires in southern continental Africa emit approximately one third of the world's biomass burning aerosol. This is advected westward by the prevailing circulation winds over a subtropical stratocumulus cloud deck. The radiative effects from the aerosol and aerosol-cloud interactions impact regional circulations and hydrology. Here we examine how concurrent changes in the burning season and regional climate in southern Africa over the past 18years (2003-2020) impact the southeast Atlantic. We combine satellite-derived burned area datasets (GFEDv5 primarily) with ECMWF-reanalysis carbon monoxide (CO), black carbon, and meteorology from the biomass burning season (May-October) in southern Africa. The burning season begins in May in woody savannas in the northwest and shifts to open savanna and grassland fires in the southeast, with small fires (<1km2) contributing significantly to total burned area. In the most recent decade, more small fires are occurring in the middle of the biomass burning season and the overall season is shorter, corroborated by reanalysis carbon monoxide fields. Free tropospheric winds, also known as the Southern African easterly jet, increase significantly and shift southward, transporting smoke aerosol further southwest over the southeast Atlantic. The advection increases middle-tropospheric CO by 5% of the total column per decade, and is coupled with a southern shift in the south Atlantic subtropical high and an increase in the low cloud fraction on the southern edge of the stratocumulus cloud deck. While smoke emissions sources have not changed significantly, changes in the smoke transport pathway, attributed to increasing surface temperatures in southern Africa and tropical expansion, combined with an altered low cloud distribution, explain how the all-sky shortwave top-of-atmosphere direct aerosol radiative effect has become more positive - a climate warming - in recent decades.

Diatom responses to rapid light and temperature fluctuations: adaptive strategies and natural variability

Diatoms are crucial in global primary productivity and carbon sequestration, contributing significantly to marine food webs and biogeochemical cycles. With the projected increase in sea surface temperatures, climate change poses significant threats to these essential organisms. This study investigates the photobiological responses of nine diatom species to rapid changes in light and temperature, aiming to understand their adaptability and resilience to climate-induced environmental fluctuations. Using a high-throughput phenoplate assay, we evaluated the maximum quantum yield of photosystem 2 (Fv/Fm), non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) and additional photosynthetic parameters under varying temperature conditions. Our results revealed significant variability in the photophysiological responses among the species, with temperature emerging as a dominant abiotic factor relative to light, accounting for 13.2%–37.5% of the measured variability. Measurements of effect size of temperature and light on Fv/Fm showed that there is additional significant innate variability in the samples when a homogeneous culture is fractioned in 384 subpopulations. Furthermore, hierarchical clustering analysis of the effect size of temperature, light and innate variability on all measured photosynthetic parameters identified two distinct diatom groups. One group exhibited strong interaction between light intensity and temperature, suggesting active synergetic mechanisms to cope with fluctuating environments, while the other showed potential limitations in this regard. These findings highlight diatoms’ diverse strategies to optimize photosynthesis and manage light and thermal stress, providing insights into their potential responses to future climate scenarios. Furthermore, we demonstrate that using the method presented in this work we can functionally cluster different diatom species.

Deciphering the Relationship Between Moisture Flux and Monsoon Extreme Rainfall Over the West Coast of India

ABSTRACTThe west coast of India has recently been experiencing torrential monsoon rains, a trend that studies indicate is likely to continue under future warming scenarios. This study investigates the link between moisture flux and extreme rainfall over the west coast, using observational and reanalysis datasets for the monsoon seasons (June to September) from 1990 to 2023. The analysis shows that, over the Indian subcontinent, rainfall along the west coast is primarily influenced by large‐scale moisture flux from the Arabian Sea. By decomposing the vertically integrated moisture flux into dynamic and thermodynamic components, this study observes that the thermodynamic component of moisture flux exhibits an increasing trend over the southwest coast, while this increasing trend is more prominent for the dynamic component over the northwest coast. Extreme rainfall over the southwest coast is increasing at a rate of 0.23 mm per season, attributed primarily to the increase in the thermodynamic component of moisture flux. It is observed that the rate of sea surface temperature (SST) increase over the Arabian Sea is faster than over the Bay of Bengal, with the average SST over the southeast Arabian Sea exceeding 28°C in recent years. Observations indicate that warming over the southeast Arabian Sea is strongly coupled with moisture accumulation observed over the southwest coast. This study provides strong evidence of a link between moisture transport, extreme rainfall and SST, identifying the southwest coast as a region vulnerable to climate change. Over the northwest coast, the incidence of extreme rainfall is associated with the strengthening of dynamic processes, and the mean monsoon rainfall in this region is increasing in alignment with the rising dynamic component of moisture flux.

Assessing Spatial Correlations Between Land Cover Types and Land Surface Temperature Trends Using Vegetation Index Techniques in Google Earth Engine: A Case Study of Thessaloniki, Greece

The Urban Heat Island (UHI) phenomenon, combined with reduced vegetation and heat generated by human activities, presents a major environmental challenge for many European urban areas. The UHI effect is especially concerning in hot and temperate climates, like the Mediterranean region, during the summer months as it intensifies the discomfort and raises the risk of heat-related health issues. As a result, assessing urban heat dynamics and steering sustainable land management practices is becoming increasingly crucial. Analyzing the relationship between land cover and Land Surface Temperature (LST) can significantly contribute to achieving this objective. This study evaluates the spatial correlations between various land cover types and LST trends in Thessaloniki, Greece, using data from the Coordination of Information on the Environment (CORINE) program and advanced vegetation index techniques within Google Earth Engine (GEE). Our analysis revealed that there has been a gradual increase in average surface temperature over the past five years, with a more pronounced increase observed in the last two years (2022 and 2023) with mean annual LST values reaching 26.07 °C and 27.09 °C, respectively. By employing indices such as the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and performing correlation analysis, we further analyzed the influence of diverse urban landscapes on LST distribution across different land use categories over the study area, contributing to a deeper understanding of UHI effects.

Variations in land surface temperature increase in South-East Asian Cities.

Climate change and global warming are terms used to describe the variation in the Earth's mean temperature as a result of human activities contributing to the formation of urban heat islands (UHI). One method for determining the temperature of a region is the land surface temperature (LST). The study of LSTs is important and closely related to climate change, as is the provision of convenient living and working conditions in cities, which support economic growth. The NASA Moderate-Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) database was utilized to gather data on the LST for each subregion from 2000 to 2022. The study area comprises 11 capital cities from Southeast Asian (SEA) nations, organized into nine sub-regional super-regions. This study used the specific area of cities as a study area different from the previous study that covered islands. The objective of the present study was to employ a cubic spline model with seven or eight nodes to assess the periodicity and fluctuations in LST in SEA cities. A 95% confidence interval was then created using the LST variation. An adequate representation of the cyclical pattern in the cubic spline equation required eight knots. The research revealed a statistically significant increase in the mean daily LST in 8 of the 11 SEA super-regions. The findings showed a confidence interval of [0.295, 0.447] °C at the 95% confidence level and an overall average increase in the LST at SEA of 0.371°C per decade. While the LST increased in Jakarta, Hanoi, Vientiane, Bangkok, Kuala Lumpur, Singapore, and Phnom Penh, it remained unchanged in the Bandar Seri Begawan super-region. On the other hand, the LST was slightly lower in Naypyidaw and marginally greater in Manila. An increase in LST in SEA cities indicates global warming due to reduced green areas.

Response of Extreme North Atlantic Midlatitude Cyclones to a Warmer Climate in the GFDL X‐SHiELD Kilometer‐Scale Global Storm‐Resolving Model

AbstractUsing the novel kilometer‐scale global storm‐resolving model Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory eXperimental System for High‐resolution prediction on Earth‐to‐Local Domains (X‐SHiELD), we investigate the impact of a 4 K increase in sea surface temperatures on Northern Hemisphere midlatitude cyclones, during the January 2020–January 2022 period. X‐SHiELD simulations reveal a poleward shift in cyclone tracks under warming, consistent with CMIP projections. However, X‐SHiELD's high resolution and explicit deep convection allowed for a detailed analysis of the warm and cold sectors, which are instead typically underrepresented in traditional CMIP models. Instead, compositing the 100 most intense midlatitude cyclones in the North Atlantic, we find that the warm sector exhibits statistically significant increases in wind speed and precipitation of up to 15% locally per degree of warming, while changes in the cold sector are less pronounced. This study demonstrates X‐SHiELD's potential to provide a realistic‐looking perspective into the evolving risks posed by midlatitude cyclones in a warming climate.

Examination of the cooling performance of the lithium-ion battery module created using phase change material at different discharge rates and different ambient temperatures

Batteries are one of the most important systems in electric vehicles. The performance of batteries varies depending on temperature, and high battery temperatures reduce battery efficiency and life. In recent years, intensive studies have been carried out on passive systems to prevent the battery module from heating, and many studies have been conducted especially on the use of phase change material (PCM). In this study, a novel battery module design created using PCM is tested by setting up experimental setups at both different discharge rates and different ambient temperatures, and the cooling performance of PCM is examined. As a result, it was found that the temperature increase in the PCM decreases during the melting process and the increase in the battery surface temperature varies according to the current value of the total heat generated in the battery. If the total heat generated in the battery increases, both the battery surface temperature and the temperature rise rate increase; if the total heat generated in the battery is constant or decreasing, the battery surface temperature increases but the temperature rise rate decreases.

Increased Surface Temperatures of Habitable White Dwarf Worlds Relative to Main-sequence Exoplanets

Abstract Discoveries of giant planet candidates orbiting white dwarf (WD) stars and the demonstrated capabilities of the James Webb Space Telescope bring the possibility of detecting rocky planets in the habitable zones (HZs) of WDs into pertinent focus. We present simulations of an aqua planet with an Earth-like atmospheric composition and incident stellar insolation orbiting in the HZ of two different types of stars—a 5000 K WD and main-sequence K-dwarf star Kepler-62 (K62) with a similar effective temperature—and identify the mechanisms responsible for the two differing planetary climates. The synchronously rotating WD planet's global mean surface temperature is 25 K higher than that of the synchronously rotating planet orbiting K62, due to its much faster (10 hr) rotation and orbital period. This ultrafast rotation generates strong zonal winds and meridional flux of zonal momentum, stretching out and homogenizing the scale of atmospheric circulation, and preventing an equivalent buildup of thick, liquid water clouds on the dayside of the planet compared to the synchronous planet orbiting K62, while also transporting heat equatorward from higher latitudes. White dwarfs may therefore present amenable environments for life on planets formed within or migrated to their HZs, generating warmer surface environments than those of planets with main-sequence hosts to compensate for an ever shrinking incident stellar flux.

Utilizing Remote Sensing for Monitoring Land Cover Changes and Land Surface Temperature Fluctuations

Land cover change detection supports many kinds of environmental and human development initiatives in both developed and developing countries over the past twenty-three years, Laos has experienced massive changes in land use resulting in corresponding increases in surface temperature. These changes have been little studied or evaluated empirically. To address this gap, this research study focused on tracking land cover change detection (LCCD) and Land surface temperature (LST) change in the study area of Thakhet Laos. Landsat 5, 8, and Modis datasets were used to analyze the relationship between land use and LST from 2000 to 2023. According to the LCCD results, the forest area decreased from 46,912 km² in 2000 to 33,955 km² in 2023, likely due to human activities and urban transition, while bare land increased and agricultural land decreased. In 2000 the LST values in the study area varied widely. The lowest recorded value is 24°C while the highest is 33°C. In 2023, the LST values ranged from 20°C to 41°C, this indicates an increase in temperatures compared to the previous years overall. The observed increase in urban areas, such as population movement, economic development, industrialization, and urban job creation could be a factor driving the LCCD and LST change.

Surface wettability effects on droplet dynamics and heat transfer on heated stainless-steel foils

Abstract We report the dynamics and heat transfer characteristics of water droplets impacting on a thin stainless-steel foil maintained at different temperatures. The hydrophobic characteristics are imparted to the surface through polysiloxane coating and water droplets impact the uncoated and coated heated surfaces at different velocities. High-speed videography is utilized to capture the dynamics of the droplet upon impact, while the temperature field of the substrate, during the phenomenon, is simultaneously recorded using high-speed infrared thermography. Heat transfer to the droplet over different surfaces is determined through energy balance on the foil using the captured thermographs. The results reveal that the spreading phase and its duration are strong functions of droplet impact velocity, irrespective of the surface wettability, whereas surface wettability primarily affects the receding phase. The coated hydrophobic surfaces exhibited lower resistance to motion at the three-phase contact line, resulting in reduced spread ratios during the receding phase. It is noted that majority of heat transfer occurred during the initial spreading and receding phases, driven primarily by forced convection. The maximum heat fluxes were observed along the three-phase contact line, particularly at the onset of the receding phase. The coated surface demonstrated lower overall heat transfer rates compared to non-coated surfaces, with the difference increasing at higher surface temperatures. Additionally, an increase in surface temperature to 75°C enhanced the hydrophobicity of the coated surface, leading to prolonged receding phases and extended time to reach the sessile state.

Examining the impact of Ag-decorated CuO-H2O nanofluid on pressure and thermal efficiency in a channel with metal foam heat sinks: an experimental study

ABSTRACT In this study, nanofluids were produced from CuO nanoparticles decorated with Ag atoms at different mass concentrations, and their cooling performance was examined in a channel containing metal foam heat sinks (MFHS) with pore densities of 10 and 40 pore per inch (PPI). CuO-H2O/2% Polyethylene Imine (PEI) nanofluid with a concentration of 0.1% by mass was used. The surfaces of the CuO nanoparticles were decorated with Ag at mass concentrations of 0.03%, 0.05%, and 0.1%. Experiments were performed for volumetric flow rates varying from 17.6 L/h to 76.5 L/h in laminar conditions, and the heat fluxes applied to the bottom of the channel were chosen in the range of 3267 W/m2-5400 W/m2. The base fluid (BF)-empty surface case was used as the reference for all measurements. In the findings of experiments conducted on the base surface, it was found that decorating CuO nanoparticles with 0.03% and 0.05% Ag atoms effectively lowers the surface temperatures compared to the BF. On the contrary, an increase in surface temperatures was detected when 0.1% Ag atoms were used. Passing a 0.1% CuO-0.05% Ag/2% PEI-H2O (NF3) nanofluid through 40 PPI MFHS’ achieved the highest improvement in mean surface temperatures, with a 37.4% increase compared to using the BF on the empty surface.

Cost Benefit Analysis of Energy Retrofitting with the Addition of Ventilation Holes in Middle Low-Income Houshold Buildings

The current climate change is characterized by an increase in the earth's surface temperature; one of the impacts that is felt quite significantly is the thermal comfort conditions in buildings. This will encourage residents to use air conditioning to provide the required level of thermal comfort. From the results of electricity demand forecasts, from 2017 to 2036, electricity demand will increase by 6.4% annually, dominated by the household sector at 38.49%. Efforts can be made to condition the room's thermal comfort to reduce the AC's operating time. This can be realized through building energy retrofitting, especially in middle-low-income households. Retrofitting will also not require high costs, so it suits middle-low-income households. In this research, retrofitting was carried out by implementing ventilation. It is hoped that ventilation will naturally provide air to specific rooms through air movement and exchange. This study implemented 12 variations in ventilation, namely variations with cross ventilation and non-cross ventilation, then varied the size of the ventilation and the number of ventilations. This research was carried out based on simulations using Computational Fluid Dynamics. After carrying out the simulation, it was obtained that the most significant decrease in indoor temperature was when cross ventilation was applied at night with ventilation measuring 30 cm x 70 cm with a total of 4 vents, namely with a decrease in the average indoor temperature of 1.614C. After that, a cost-benefit analysis was carried out to compare the costs and benefits of a project; a cost-benefit ratio of 1.26 was obtained, where the profits were more significant than the expenditure costs, a payback period value of 0.402 was obtained, or the capital could be returned for five months, and savings were obtained. Electricity consumption costs up to year five amount to IDR 24,340,306.

Increased surface temperature at critical heat flux for single water droplet impact with alcohol additives

Increased surface temperature at critical heat flux for single water droplet impact with alcohol additives

The risk of high-biomass HABs: Triggers and dynamics of a non-toxic bloom of Prorocentrum micans in Chilean Patagonia.

Harmful algal blooms (HABs) of toxin-producing microalgae are recurrent in Patagonian fjord systems. Like toxigenic HABs, high-biomass harmful algal blooms (HB-HABs) have important socio-economic repercussions, but most studies have focused on the former. Here we report the formation and development of an intense HB-HAB of Prorocentrum micans that occurred in Northwest Chilean Patagonia in the late summer (February-March) of 2022. Concentrated and extensive brown spots were visible on the water surface, accompanied at the end of February by a strong odour. Prorocentrum micans cells were detected at relatively low densities (up to 215 cells mL-1) in January but by February 11 cell densities exceeded 1000 cells mL-1, reaching a maximum of 8.3×103 cell mL-1 in the surface layer. The high cell densities at Reloncaví Sound and the Gulf of Ancud were closely associated with narrow-ranging increases in the sea surface temperature (17-18.5°C) and salinity (29-31gkg-1). Sentinel-2 satellite images from February 22 showed a colour change corresponding to the presence of the brown patches at both locations, consistent with the increases in the normalized index of chlorophyll differences (NDCI) and chlorophyll a concentrations (~50μgL-1). Satellite images from GHRSST indicated warmer waters in Reloncaví Sound and the Gulf of Ancud than in the Gulf of Corcovado, located 170-km to the south. An oceanographic 3-D model (MOSA) showed surface currents with a cyclonic eddy centred in the Gulf of Ancud. This circulation pattern suggested greater water retention in the study area during January and February, with the drifting and rotation of the coastal currents around the eddy maintaining the P. micans bloom. Thus, the elevated cell density of P. micans in the Gulf of Ancud, near the periphery of the eddy, confirm the presence of a material accumulation hotspot for HABs and HB-HABs.

Assessment of Freeze-Thaw in Romania

Due in part to political participation, the study of severe climate and weather conditions has attracted a lot of attention in recent decades. However, there has been insufficient focus on the historical climate monitoring data. Accurate estimates of frost heave are crucial for determining construction costs, designing building foundations, and ensuring the integrity of concrete structures. Additionally, frost heave plays a significant role in local meteorological conditions, impacting perennial plants. To mitigate the effects of freeze-thaw cycles on concrete, various strategies must be employed during the design, construction, and maintenance phases. The results from this investigation could be applied to mitigate frost-related disasters and inform the development of policies and measures for adapting geotechnical and structural designs to the specific conditions of Romania. Also, the paper presents the calculations of winter severity parameters for the city of Cluj-Napoca. A Romanian freeze-thaw cycle (FTC) map is essential due to recent climate studies showing an increase in both global and local surface temperatures, with the past thirty years seeing the most notable warming.

Climate Change: Mitigation Strategies and Need for Adaptation

Life on Earth is under increasing threat of anthropogenic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The anthropogenic activities have unequivocally caused about 1.0°C of global warming above the pre-industrial level, and it is expected to increase further and reach 1.5°C between 2030 and 2052 if the existing emission rates persist. This perilous change in the Earth’s climate is causing uncontrollable wildfires, heatwaves, floods, droughts, storms, destruction of agricultural crops, biodiversity loss, and destruction of vulnerable ecosystems. If the current trend continues, Earth will become unhabitable and a hostile place to live. It becomes necessary to call for effective climate change mitigation strategies and adaptation mechanisms. In 2015, an internationally legally binding treaty called the Paris Agreement was adopted to tackle climate change and strengthen the global response to reduce GHG emissions. The agreement aims to hold the increase in global surface temperature to below 2°C above pre-industrial levels by 2100 and pursue efforts to limit the increase to 1.5°C. The aim of this study was to theoretically determine how erratic climate patterns are threatening and deteriorating the sustainability of diverse sectors worldwide. The article reviews some key climate change mitigation strategies such as conventional mitigation (reducing fossil-based CO2 emissions), negative emissions (carbon dioxide removals), and radiative forcing geoengineering (altering the Earth’s radiative energy budget to stabilize or reduce global temperatures). The significance of the synergy between climate change mitigation and climate change adaptation has also been discussed in this article.

Urban heat island analysis in Blora Regency using multispectral images from 2013 to 2022

Abstract UHI is the increasing surface temperature higher than the surrounding area: high temperatures and low vegetation cause the high UHI. Blora geographically has conditions that often experience severe drought and has very high drought with temperatures &gt;40oC. Based on the above conditions, this study aims to determine the relationship between vegetation index and surface temperature to UHI. After obtaining multitemporal Landsat 9 OLI and Landsat 8 OLI image data from 4 different years spanning three years, NDVI was analysed with LST to produce UHI and a moment product correlation to determine the relationship between NDVI and LST. The results of this study found that the value of the vegetation index decreased in 2019 to the temperature distribution, which also experienced anomalous increases in 2019 compared to the previous year. In correlation, the NDVI value is inversely proportional to LST. The coefficient of determination from 2013 was r2 = 98%, 2016 was r2 = 99%, 2019 was r2 = 80%, and 2022 was r2 = 98%. The quadratic coefficient of determination above shows that the range of years has a perfect relationship (r2).

The impact of climate change on morphological patterns of river floodplains in cryolithozone

Fluvial processes are highly variable and their dynamics under the influence of modern climate change are of both scientific and practical interest. The present work is an attempt to assess the impact of the modern climate change on the morphological pattern development in cryolithozone flood plains using modelling based on the methods of mathematical morphology of landscapes. The flood plains are territories of free channel meandering with topography formed by fluvial processes at different stages of development; so they represent a complex “patchwork” landscape morphological pattern occurring in the dynamic balance state. Our research involves fragments of the flood plains, for which there were two survey dates with a fairly large interval between them (about 50 years). As a climate change characteristic, the trends of surface air temperature anomalies for the same period (1956—2019) were calculated. An analysis of the calculated trends in surface temperature anomalies showed their heterogeneity both by seasons and by location, with a steady increase in surface temperature in general over the studied period. For all key sites, the mathematical model of the landscape morphological pattern of alluvial plains was tested. The analysis shows the correspondence of empirical data to theoretical ones, which allows us to obtain the model parameters to assess the change in the morphological pattern under the influence of climate change. It was suggested that climate change may lead to a change of the parameters of the corresponding distribution for the model variables due to the violation of dynamic balance. This statement was tested using the Smirnov test for two independent samples. The study of the relationship between distribution parameters and temperature trends includes assessing the correlation between them. Our analysis showed that the influence of modern temperature changes on the development of the morphological pattern of the flood plains over the past 40–50 years is manifested in a change of the distribution parameters for the forming flood plain segments, but it is not significant enough to change greatly the statistical distributions in the mathematical model of the morphological pattern of floodplains in general.

INVESTIGATING LAND SURFACE TEMPERATURE CHANGES IN THANH HOA CITY FROM 2000 TO 2023 USING GOOGLE EARTH ENGINE

In recent years, rapid urbanization has significantly increased surface temperatures in major urban areas. Surface temperature is one of the key factors in studying the impacts of urbanization on the environment and society. This study focused on identifying changes in surface temperature values in Thanh Hoa city, located in Thanh Hoa province, from 2000 to 2023 using satellite imagery on the Google Earth Engine platform. The results indicated that land surface temperature values fluctuated over different periods in the study area. The average surface temperature reached its highest value in 2023, followed by 2015, 2019, 2001, and 2022, and the lowest in 2007. The results obtained in this paper can provide useful information to assist managers and policymakers in making decisions regarding land use planning and urban development.

An overview of climate changes and its effects on health - from mechanisms to One Health.

Human activities, primarily the burning of fossil fuels, widespread deforestation, soil erosion or machine-intensive farming methods, manufacturing, food processing, mining, and construction iron, cement, steel, and chemicals industry, have been the main drivers of the observed increase in Earth's average surface temperature and climate change. Rising global temperatures, extreme weather events, ecosystems disruption, agricultural impacts, water scarcity, problems in access to good quality water, food and housing, and profound environmental disruptions such as biodiversity loss and extreme pollution are expected to steeply increase the prevalence and severity of acute and chronic diseases. Its long-term effects cannot be adequately predicted or mitigated without a comprehensive understanding of the adaptive ecosystems. Studying the complex interaction between environmental aggressors and the resilient adaptive responses requires the exposomic and the One Health approaches. The problem is broad and affects the whole ecosystem, plants, pets and animals in addition to humans. The central role of the epithelial barrier, microbiome, and diet as key pillars for an adaptive tolerogenic immune response should be explored for increasing resilience at the individual level. A radical change in mindset worldwide, with sustainable solutions and adaptive strategies and climate-resilience and health equity policies at their center, should be achieved quickly through increased awareness based on solid scientific data.