Increased Rate Of Return Research Articles

The Neural Circuitry of a Broken Promise

Promises are one of the oldest human-specific psychological mechanisms fostering cooperation and trust. Here, we study the neural underpinnings of promise keeping and promise breaking. Subjects first make a promise decision (promise stage), then they anticipate whether the promise affects the interaction partner's decision (anticipation stage) and are subsequently free to keep or break the promise (decision stage). Findings revealed that the breaking of the promise is associated with increased activation in the DLPFC, ACC, and amygdala, suggesting that the dishonest act involves an emotional conflict due to the suppression of the honest response. Moreover, the breach of the promise can be predicted by a perfidious brain activity pattern (anterior insula, ACC, inferior frontal gyrus) during the promise and anticipation stage, indicating that brain measurements may reveal malevolent intentions before dishonest or deceitful acts are actually committed.

Incentives increased return rates but did not influence partial nonresponse or treatment outcome in a randomized trial

Objective Our aim was to analyze monetary incentives and shortening the questionnaire as means of increasing response rates in a mailed follow-up survey 1 year after inpatient psychotherapeutic treatment. Additionally, effects on partial nonresponse and the assessment of treatment outcome were examined. Study Design and Setting In a 2 × 2 factorial design, a sample of 3,825 patients was randomized to the two following interventions: (1) receiving a prepaid monetary incentive or none; and (2) getting a short or a long questionnaire. Treatment outcome was measured prospectively by a self-assessment instrument for psychopathology. Results When using incentives, the response rate significantly increased by 7.3% (95% confidence interval [CI] 2.6–11.9%). Receiving a short questionnaire led to an augmentation of the response rate of 3.7% (95% CI 0.9–8.3%), which was not significant. The corresponding odds ratios were significantly increased for monetary incentives (1.36; 95% CI 1.30–1.88), and when abridging the questionnaire (1.15; 95% CI 1.01–1.31). However, partial nonresponse and treatment outcome were independent of the two factors. Conclusion Incentives and a shorter questionnaire led to higher return rates but did not affect partial nonresponse and self-report of treatment outcome in a randomized postal survey.

Bovine Claw and Limb Disorders Related to Reproductive Performance and Production Diseases

As part of a cross-sectional study of Norwegian Red Cattle, associations of lameness, lesions at the tarsus, claw shapes, and claw lesions with reproductive performance and production diseases were examined. Fifty-five tiestall herds and 57 freestall herds were sampled by computerized systematic selection and 2,665 cows were trimmed and limb and claw disorders recorded by 13 specifically trained claw trimmers during the late winter and spring of 2002. After exclusions, 2,583 cows were included in this study. Most claw lesions were mild (score 1). Prevalence of moderate and severe lesions (score 2 + 3) did not exceed 5% for any of the lesions. Hazard ratios for independent variables were identified using Cox regression analyses incorporating herd as a random effect in a positive stable frailty model. Wounds and swellings at the tarsus were associated with more clinical mastitis [hazard ratio (HR) = 4.0] and teat injuries (HR = 2.5). Moderate and severe heel-horn erosions in first-lactation cows were associated with increased calving interval (HR = 0.60). Moderate and severe hemorrhages of the sole in first-lactation cows were associated with decreased interval from calving to first service (HR = 1.6) and moderate and severe hemorrhages of the sole were associated with more milk fever (HR = 8.6). All hemorrhages of the sole (scores = 1, 2, and 3) were associated with more reproductive hormonal treatments (HR = 2.3). All sole ulcers in first-lactation cows were associated with longer interval from calving to last service (HR = 0.59) and longer calving interval (HR = 0.61), whereas sole ulcers in older cows were associated with longer calving interval (HR = 0.62). All sole ulcers also were associated with more milk fever (HR = 4.8) in all cows. Moderate and severe sole ulcers in older cows were associated with increased interval from calving to first (HR = 0.35) and last (HR = 0.37) service. Moderate and severe white-line fissures in older cows were associated with increased return rate from previous insemination (HR = 2.4). Our study shows that claw disorders are associated with poorer reproductive performance and some production diseases.

Comparison of Methods to Increase Repeat Testing in Persons Treated for Gonorrhea and/or Chlamydia at Public Sexually Transmitted Disease Clinics

Retesting 3 to 4 months after treatment for those infected with chlamydia and/or gonorrhea has been recommended. We compared various methods of encouraging return for retesting 3 months after treatment for chlamydia or gonorrhea. In study 1, participants were randomly assigned to: 1) brief recommendation to return, 2) intervention 1 plus $20 incentive paid at return visit, or 3) intervention 1 plus motivational counseling at the first visit and a phone reminder at 3 months. In study 2, participants at 1 clinic were randomly assigned to 4) intervention 1, 5) intervention 1 plus phone reminder, or 6) intervention 1 plus motivational counseling but no telephone reminder. Using multiple logistic regression, the odds ratios for interventions 2 and 3, respectively, compared with intervention 1 were 1.2 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.6-2.5) and 2.6 (95% CI, 1.3-5.0). The odds ratios for interventions 5 and 6 compared with intervention 4 were 18.1 (95% CI, 1.7-193.5) and 4.6 (95% CI, 0.4-58.0). A monetary incentive did not increase return rates compared with a brief recommendation. A reminder phone call seemed to be the most effective method to increase return.

Antibiotic prescribing for children. Too much and too little? Retrospective observational study in primary care.

To investigate the extent of dose-related off-label antibiotic paediatric prescribing in primary care and to identify any potential clinical effects, particularly of lower than recommended dose prescribing. Assessment of antibiotic prescribing in 168 396 children aged 0-16 years for the year 1999-2000 from data retrieved from 158 general practices using the national Scottish primary care computer system GPASS. The setting was general practices in Scotland. During the study period at least one course of antibiotics was prescribed to 23 911 children (14.2%). A total of 4582 (19.2%) children were prescribed an antibiotic dose of less than that recommended in the Summary of Product Characteristics (SPC). The number of children prescribed an antibiotic at less than recommended dose increased with age from 1154 (11.8%) aged 0-4 years to 1827 (30.0%) in the 12-16 years age group. For each antibiotic, prescribing lower than recommended dose occurred most frequently at those ages at which a dose increase was recommended in the SPC. Antibiotic prescribing at less than the recommended dose was not associated with an increased return rate for further antibiotic prescriptions during the following month, but in 5-11-year-olds was associated with a significant 48% increase in the total number of antibiotic courses prescribed during the study year [mean = 2.09 [95% confidence interval (CI) 1.79, 2.39]vs. 1.41 [95% CI 1.35, 1.47]]. Antibiotic prescribing at doses higher than recommended occurred less frequently (1.6%) and decreased steadily with age. Off-label prescribing of antibiotics at less than the recommended dose in children is common in primary care and occurs primarily as the result of a failure to increase antibiotic dosage with age in line with SPC recommendations. Adoption of a uniform approach to SPC age banding for antibiotic dose increments would reduce the frequency of dose-related off-label antibiotic prescribing in children and help minimize the potential for the development of antibiotic resistance.

Reduced immunocompetence and cost of reproduction in common eiders.

Immunocompetence may be especially important in long-lived species where infectious organisms may have detrimental effects upon future reproductive value of hosts. The resource demand for immunocompetence may reduce resource availability for reproduction and a trade-off between these traits has therefore been proposed. Capital breeders, such as the common eider (Somateria mollissima), rely upon accumulated body reserves during reproduction. Eiders lose more than 40% of pre-breeding body mass during egglaying and incubation and many females abandon their ducklings to other females after hatching. Results from our observational study show that levels of leukocytes (i.e., lymphocytes, heterophils and heterophil/lymphocyte ratio) are not related to body mass early in the incubation period. However, eider females with low initial body mass showed signs of immunosuppression (i.e., decreased late levels of lymphocytes) and increased response towards stressors (i.e., increased heterophil/lymphocyte ratio) later in the incubation period. Moreover, females with low lymphocyte levels more frequently abandoned their brood, and females abandoning young had an increased return rate to the next breeding season. However, among brood abandoning females return rate was lower for the females with low lymphocyte levels. These results suggest that immunosuppression, as indicated by low lymphocyte levels, is a reproductive cost that may be partly compensated for by abandoning young.

The effect of infection with bovine viral diarrhea virus on the fertility of Swiss dairy cattle

Bovine viral diarrhea virus is a major cattle pathogen with a worldwide distribution. Animals may be infected with BVD virus transiently or persistently. Transient infection leads to protective immunity. Persistent infection is unique because it is associated with an immunotolerance that is specific to the infecting strain of BVD virus. Persistent infection results from viral invasion of fetuses between the second and fourth month of development. Such animals are of prime importance in the epidemiology of BVD because they shed large amounts of virus, and thus serve as a constant source of infection for non-immune animals. Infection of pregnant animals during the first two months of gestation may result in an increased rate of return to estrus. Animals infected in the period of five months to birth may abort or give birth to calves with malformations. The effects of BVD virus on fertility and gestation are well documented from experimental infection. However, much less is known of the extent of losses under field conditions. The main reason for this may be the multitude of other causes of increased return rates and gestation failures. In addition, the incidence of infection with BVD virus may vary over time and depends on management practices. In this study, we investigated the impact of BVD virus on gestation failures under field conditions in a large cattle-breeding area of Switzerland, where no specific measures to control BVD are in effect. Our approach consisted of relating seroconversions to BVD virus with the rate of return to estrus, abortion, and birth of calves with apparent malformations. These parameters of fertility were compared to those of animals immune to BVDV infection due to previous exposure to the virus and animals without seroconversion. Our data show that infection with BVD virus during the first 45 days of gestation did not influence the rate of return to estrus. By contrast, we observed a statistically significant increase in the abortion rate in mid-term gestation (Days 46 to 210) while no such effect was observed in the later stages of gestation. No clinically manifest malformations were observed in the offspring of animals that had seroconverted to BVD virus. In our study population the prevalence of BVDV antibody positive cattle varied only slightly between 78% and 80% over the period of observation. Our data showed that 7% (CI: 2.4–14%) of fetal deaths may be attributable to infection with BVD virus.

Remote Purchase Environments: The Influence of Return Policy Leniency on Two-Stage Decision Processes

The growth of catalog sales and the enormous potential of e-commerce elevates the importance of understanding remote purchase. Remote purchase environments differ from traditional bricks-and-mortar purchases in that the purchase decision is more likely to be framed as two separate decisions: consumers' decisions to order and, upon receipt, their decisions to keep or return the item. These two decisions are separated by a period of time, and crucial experiential information often is available only at the second decision point (i.e., after receipt). Consumers' initial lack of experiential information makes product choice more risky. Return policy leniency is one way to minimize the inherent consumer risk, but retailers may avoid instituting overtly lenient policies because they expect increased return rates. However, the endowment effect suggests some surprising benefits of return policy leniency to the retailer. Results from three experiments provide support for the idea that product ownership depends more on perception than possession.

Increasing return rates of a mail survey to exercise professionals using a modest monetary incentive.

This study indicated that a variety of survey techniques resulted in a modest return rate (66%) in a national survey of 455 exercise professionals. A $1.00 bill incentive was significantly more effective than no incentive in improving returns, and the rate of double responses in this anonymous mail survey was extremely low (< 1%).

An informational versus monetary incentive in increasing physicians' response rates.

This study examined return rates for a cancer prevention survey by pediatricians in relation to an informational booklet versus a monetary incentive in the first of a three-wave mailing. Of the 300 surveys sent which included an informational booklet incentive, 189 (64%) were returned. Of the 300 surveys sent which included a $1.00 incentive 227 (79%) were returned, indicating the $1.00 incentive was more effective than the informational incentive in increasing return rates in this sample of physicians.

Increasing return rates to a mail survey among health educators.

This study indicated a combination of methods increased the return rate (80%) in a national survey of health educators (n = 546). Also, use of a $1.00 bill incentive was not significantly more effective than no incentive, and the rate of double responses in this anonymous mail survey was very low (1%).

Race-specific versus general stamps on African-American women's survey return rates.

This study examined cancer survey return rates in relation to race-specific versus general stamps used on self-addressed stamped return envelopes. Of the 104 race-specific stamps sent 41 (39%) were returned. Of the 108 general stamps sent 41 (38%) were returned. Thus, race-specific stamps were not effective in increasing return rates in this sample of African-American women.

Incentives and Rates of Return for Travel Surveys

In recent years, lower rates of return for household-based travel surveys have become a reality. It may be difficult to collect enough data for effective transportation planning. Various incentive methods have been used to induce survey recipients to participate fully. Incentive methods will be described (along with other factors affecting rates of return), and their apparent effect on rates of return discussed. It appears that monetary incentives sent with survey materials are most effective in increasing return rates; nonmonetary incentives offered with survey packets are somewhat less effective. The data are inconclusive regarding monetary and nonmonetary incentives offered as a reward upon completion of surveys.

Incentives and Rates of Return for Travel Sur veys

In recent years, lower rates of return for household-based travel surveys have become a reality. It may be difficult to collect enough data for effective transportation planning. Various incentive methods have been used to induce survey recipients to participate fully. Incentive methods will be described (along with other factors affecting rates of return), and their apparent effect on rates of return discussed. It appears that monetary incentives sent with survey materials are most effective in increasing return rates; nonmonetary incentives offered with survey packets are somewhat less effective. The data are inconclusive regarding monetary and nonmonetary incentives offered as a reward upon completion of surveys.

The effect of the timing of follow-up on response rates to international surveys

Domestic experience is often applied to international surveys in an attempt to increase response rates. This report presents results concerning the impact of varying the time for follow-up postcards and replacement questionnaires. While replacement questionnaires did increase return rates, follow-up timing does not seem as critical as reported in literature concerning domestic U.S.A. questionnaires.

Incentives for Increasing Return Rates: Magnitude Levels, Response Bias, amd Format

THE use of monetary and nonmonetary incentives has received significant attention as a method of increasing return rates from mail surveys. Armstrong (1975), in a review of eight studies, concluded that monetary incentives have a substantial impact on survey return rate, typically reducing nonreponse by a third. Nonmonetary incentives also have positive effects, although the response increase has not always been statistically significant (cf. Nederhof, 1983). Initial evidence from direct comparisons suggests that monetary incentives are superior to nonmonetary ones in increasing mail survey returns (Goodstadt, et al., 1977). Armstrong's review concluded that increasing the size of a monetary incentive increases mail survey response. However, he notes that few studies have compared different magnitudes of monetary incentives, and few studies have investigated the effects of incentives greater than a dollar, leaving the effects of larger incentives unknown. Thus, the current study was designed to address these issues by comparing the effects of $5 and $1 incentives on mail return rate.

Broken Appointments: Questions, Not Answers

Our experience suggests that the implications of Nazarian et al.'s study that mailed appointment reminders significantly increase return rates to clinic need to be reevaluated. Although the approach has been found useful in some settings, we attempted a similar form of intervention in the setting of a pediatric neurology clinic at the University of Colorado Medical Center and found no statistically significant impact. All patients seen during a two-month period with a scheduled return appointment were included in the study and alternatively assigned to the study or control group.