Increased Parenting Stress Research Articles

Parenting stress, dyadic coping and endocrine markers of stress and resilience in foster and biological mothers.

Foster parents have been shown to report higher levels of parenting stress but also more dyadic coping (DC) behaviors in their partnership than biological parents, which might be an important protective factor that helps them cope with daily stressors. Here, we examined how parenting stress and DC are related in foster and biological parents and whether these are reflected in long-term alterations of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical (HPA) axis activity. A total of 79 foster mothers and 131 biological mothers participated in a longitudinal study. At the initial assessment, children were aged 2-7 years and lived for an average of 18 months in their current foster family. Mothers' cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) concentrations and their cortisol/DHEA ratios were assessed in scalp hair twice with approximately 11 months in between, while their perceived parenting stress and DC were measured by self-report questionnaires. Results showed no significant differences between foster mothers and biological mothers in cortisol, DHEA and cortisol/DHEA concentrations. While more DC was longitudinally related to lower levels of parenting stress across both study groups, no significant associations were found to endocrine markers. Thus, these findings indicate that increased parenting stress levels were not, or not strongly, reflected in HPA axis alterations as assessed in hair. Our findings thus add evidence for non-significant associations between self-reported perceived stress and chronic HPA axis markers. Future studies may explore whether early interventions, including those aimed at promoting and maintaining positive DC, are beneficial in preventing the development of stress-related illnesses in foster parents.

Correlations of Physical and Psychological Health in Parents of Individuals With Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have social communication difficulties and restricted, repetitive, and/or sensory behaviors or interests. The prevalence of ASD is now 1 in 36 individuals. Parents of individuals with ASD face challenges that can affect their physical and psychological well-being. With the long-term goal to tailor an exercise program, the purpose of this study was 2-fold: (1) establish the baseline physical and mental health of parents of individuals with ASD and (2) estimate the relationship of physiologic variables with psychological variables of health for parents of individuals with ASD. This descriptive, cross-sectional study (N = 44) explored physical health measures and the correlation between physical and psychological health, using measures of anxiety, stress, parenting depression, and positive thinking for parents who care for individuals with ASD. The common characteristics that these parents shared was high body fat and low physical activity. Body fat was negatively correlated to total step count (r = -0.428, P < .05), grip strength (r = -0.319, P < .5), and total distance walked in the week (r = -0.661, P < .01), and positively correlated to 5-times sit to stand (r = 0.337, P < .05). Low activity correlated to increased parenting stress of advocating for child's needs (r = -0.310, P = .043). Understanding relationships between physical and psychological health informs effective interventions and support systems for parents. Parents need supports to be able to prioritize exercise. Future studies should include a larger sample to verify these effects.

Prospective Association of Parenting Stress with Later Child Behavior Problems in Early Childhood Autism.

Autistic children are reported to display higher levels of externalizing and internalizing behaviors than neurotypical children, and their parents report more stress than parents of neurotypical children. It is unclear whether child behavior difficulties contribute to increased parenting stress, whether parenting stress contributes to child behavior difficulties, or whether the relationship may be bidirectional. We investigated prospective bidirectional associations between parenting stress and child externalizing and internalizing behaviors when autistic children were aged on average 3.5, 4.5, and 5.5years. Data collected at these three timepoints were examined across two panels: Time 1 to Time 2 (n = 38 parent-child dyads) and Time 2 to Time 3 (n = 27 dyads). Across Time 1 to Time 2, early parenting stress was significantly associated with later child externalizing behavior, and cross-lagged panel analysis supported a uni- rather than a bidirectional association between these factors. There was some evidence of a bidirectional association between parenting stress and child internalizing behavior, though this was non-significant when the strong stability of child internalizing behavior was statistically controlled. In contrast, across Time 2 to Time 3, there were no significant prospective associations found between variables, highlighting the importance of considering the impact of parenting stress early in the course of childhood autism. Our results add to research indicating that support targeting parent characteristics, especially parenting stress, could ameliorate subsequent outcomes for both parents and children.

Strategies and Adaptations to an Integrated Substance Use and Infant Mental Health Treatment Program During COVID-19.

The COVID-19 pandemic resulted in increased parenting stress and substance use. At the same time that mental health and social service needs increased, access to services, including among those receiving treatment, decreased due to stay-at-home orders. Few programs were equipped or prepared to translate their interventions to a virtual format at the start of the pandemic. There is a critical need to identify effective adaptations to substance use and family-focused treatment during the COVID-19 pandemic. Effective program adaptations have continued relevance for the expansion of access to family-focused addiction services beyond the pandemic itself, particularly for rural or other hard to reach populations. Seventy-three semi-structured interviews were conducted with the five agencies participating in the implementation of the In-Home Recovery Program (IHRP), an in-home, substance use disorder (SUD) treatment program. Using a rapid analysis approach two coders analyzed interviews for recurring concepts and themes. Facilitators for adapting services included: (1) the introduction of virtual toxicology screens, (2) helping parents access technology, (3) assisting parents with non-identified children to decrease their stress, and (4) anticipating reoccurrences of substances during the pandemic. Barriers to adapting services included: (1) engaging young children in virtual treatment, (2) privacy, and (3) engaging in telehealth with parents experiencing domestic violence or reoccurrence of substances. Findings reveal virtual substance use treatment is possible. Facilitators to adaptation such as providing access to technology and virtual toxicology screens demonstrate the feasibility and acceptability of utilizing telehealth interventions for substance use. Barriers to adaptations were primarily related to the infant mental health component. Telehealth is likely not appropriate for children below the age of five. Individual sessions focusing on caregiving, rather than dyadic treatment may be more suitable to virtual formats.

Indirect effect of ADHD on parenting stress through increased child anxiety and decreased emotional regulatory coping.

Parents of children with ADHD experience significantly more parenting stress in comparison to parents of typically developing children due to the emotional and behavioral difficulties related to ADHD. Additionally, approximately 30% of children with ADHD experience co-occurring anxiety. Parents of children with co-occurring anxiety and ADHD report increased stress due to role restriction and isolation compared to parents of children with ADHD alone. Poor emotional regulatory coping in children with ADHD has been linked to elevated negative affect and irritability, which also contributes to increased stress among parents. The present study examined the direct and indirect associations of child anxiety symptoms and emotional regulatory coping on elevated ADHD symptoms and parenting stress. Participants were 203 children aged 7-12-years-old and their parents. Parents completed a self-report measure of parenting stress and measures of their child's ADHD symptoms, anxiety, and emotional regulatory coping. Additionally, children completed self-report measures of emotional regulatory coping. Model testing indicated that the overall model demonstrated excellent fit to the data. Parameter testing supported an indirect effect of child ADHD symptoms on parenting stress through child anxiety symptoms and an indirect effect of child ADHD symptoms on parenting stress through child emotional regulatory coping. These results suggest that child anxiety and emotion dysregulation in children with ADHD have a negative impact on parental stress. The current study adds to the understanding of the important roles emotional regulatory coping and anxiety play in children with ADHD to contribute to increased parenting stress.

Intergenerational effects of maternal PTSD: Roles of parenting stress and child sex.

Parental posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) increases children's risk for emotional and behavioral problems. We examined parenting stress and parenting behavior quality as mediators of the relation between maternal PTSD and problematic child behaviors in a sample at high risk for trauma exposure. We also examined whether child sex moderated this association. Participants were 141 African American mother-child dyads (children aged 8-12). Mothers reported PTSD severity, parenting stress, and child behavior (externalizing, internalizing, and emotional self-control). Parenting behavior quality (accounting for factors including parental warmth and engagement) was assessed from an observational parent-child interaction task. Parenting stress, but not observed parenting behavior quality, mediated the relation between maternal PTSD severity and child behaviors. Child sex moderated this association, such that the effect was stronger for girls. Maternal PTSD may be associated with negative child behavior outcomes, and this relation appears to be mediated by increased parenting stress. Stress-reducing interventions for parents with PTSD could improve child outcomes, especially for girls. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Child Behavior Problems and Parenting Stress in Underserved Families of Children with ASD: Investigation of Family Resources and Parenting Self-efficacy.

Behavior problems in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) may exacerbate parenting stress. Parenting self-efficacy and family resources may influence this association. We examined cross-sectional statistical mediation effects of parenting self-efficacy on the relationship between child behavior problems and parenting stress and hypothesized that family-level resources moderated this indirect effect. Participants included 132 underserved (Medicaid-eligible) children with ASD (ages 3-13) with racial/ethnic diversity; many (63%) had intellectual disability. Greater externalizing problems were linked with lower parenting self-efficacy, which in turn was associated with increased parenting stress. A larger mediation effect was observed for families with fewer resources. A plausible alternative model (parenting stress mediating parenting self-efficacy) exhibited poorer fit. Implications for family supports and benefits of longitudinal follow-up are discussed.

Chaotic family environments and depressive symptoms in parents of autistic children: The protective role of optimism

BackgroundRaising an autistic child is associated with increased parenting stress and higher rates of depression for both mothers and fathers. While most research has focused on the challenges related to having an autistic child, such as higher rates of chaotic family environments, an emerging body of research has begun to examine the protective effects of optimism to reduce the negative impact on parent mental health. MethodA total of 133 mothers and 78 fathers of autistic children between the ages of 2–10 years participated in the study. Parents answered questionnaires related to their family functioning, dispositional optimism, and depressive symptoms. ResultsResults found a significant family chaotic environment X optimism X parent gender interaction. For mothers and fathers, higher levels of chaotic family environment were associated with increased depressive symptoms whereas increased levels of optimism were associated with lower levels of depressive symptoms. However, optimism was only protective for mothers and not for fathers. ConclusionsThe results highlight the need for the inclusion of optimism in parent-focused interventions.

Associations of food insecurity and material social support with parent and child mental health during COVID-19

The rise of mental health problems during COVID-19 has been called a national crisis. Parents and caregivers reported parenting stress, anxiety, and depression, which may be exacerbated by economic insecurity. This study used longitudinal data to examine the association of food insecurity and material social support to subsequent parent and child mental health outcomes in the early weeks of COVID-19. Data were collected from a national convenience sample of U.S. parents (N = 359) at two time points: April 14, 2020 (T1) and April 30, 2020 (T2). Data were analyzed using multivariate linear and logistic regression analyses. Most of the sample were mothers (67.5%) and identified as White (69.6%). Among parents for whom services were applicable, over half (51.4%) were unable to receive free and reduced-cost school-based lunch. Food insecurity at T1 was significantly associated with higher odds of parental anxiety (OR = 1.52, p <.001) and depression (OR = 1.63, p <.001), as well as increased parenting stress (β = 0.16, p =.008) and parental report of child anxiety (β = 0.15, p =.014). Conversely, material social support was significantly associated with lower odds of parental anxiety (OR = 0.90, p =.014) and depression (OR = 0.85, p <.001), as well as lower levels of parenting stress (β = -0.20, p =.001) and parental report of child anxiety (β = -0.13, p =.028). Results suggest that household food insecurity may place parents and children at greater risk for mental health problems during COVID-19. However, access to tangible resources that offer material or financial support may be protective for both parent and child mental health. Study results suggest that policy interventions are needed to support the economic wellbeing of families during COVID-19.

Racial Discrimination, Mental Health, and Parenting Among African American Mothers of Preschool-Aged Children.

Indirect exposure to racism experienced by a caregiver (ie, vicarious racism) is associated with poor outcomes for children, but mechanisms of vicarious racism transmission are poorly understood. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between experiences of racial discrimination and parenting among African American mothers and to identify psychological mediators and moderators of this relationship. African American mothers (N= 250) with young children (mean age= 3.7 years old) reported on perceived racial discrimination (Race-Related Events Scale), parenting (Parenting Stress Index, Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire), coping (Coping Strategies Index), and mental health (Stress Overload Scale, Beck Depression Inventory). Multivariable linear regression was used to examine associations between perceived racial discrimination and parenting and to test coping as a moderator of these relationships. Ordinary least-squares regression-based path analysis with bootstrapping was used to examine mediation by stress overload and depressive symptoms. At least one experience of racial discrimination was reported by 57% of women. Experiences of racial discrimination were associated with increased parenting stress (β= 0.69, p= .02), and this relationship was mediated by stress overload (95% CI [0.35, 1.09]) and depressive symptoms (95% CI [0.27, 1.18]). Racial discrimination was not associated with parenting styles, and coping strategies largely did not moderate the relationships examined. Racial discrimination has harmful intergenerational effects on African American children and families. Systemic-level interventions are needed, including adoption of policies to promote racial justice and eliminate structural racism in the United States. Future research on coping strategies specific to racism-related stress is needed to inform approaches to intervention.

Are Neighbors and Neighborhoods Still Important? Examining the Impact of Neighbors and Neighborhood Environments on Mothers’ Parenting Stress

The contemporary neighborhood literature discusses the complex relationships among neighborhood environments, social support, and parenting. Grounded in the Person-Process-Context-Time (PPCT) model, we examined how different sources of social support interact with Korean mothers’ perception of disorder in their neighborhoods, and if social support increases or decreases their parenting stress in rural and metropolitan areas. Using STATA 14.0, we conducted multiple regression modeling including tests for interaction effects. Our sample (from the 8th Wave PSKC) included 1,300 mothers of seven-year-old children who were transitioning to first grade. The results showed that for metropolitan mothers, support from neighbors was important. Interestingly, receiving social support from friends/colleagues could increase or reduce their parenting stress depending on the type of residential neighborhood. Both rural and metropolitan mothers who reported negative impressions of their neighborhood environment experienced more parenting stress. However, these relationships disappeared when controlling for the interactions between mothers’ perception of disorder in their neighborhood and social support. These findings suggest that the social support that mothers receive from neighbors, and friends/colleagues, in general, play an important role in relieving parenting stress when raising first graders. However, living in disorganized, unsafe, or stressful neighborhood environments may restrict mothers’ parenting choices due to anxiety and limited outdoor space, resulting in increased parenting stress. Therefore, careful consideration of neighborhood characteristics is required to develop community-based parenting support services as part of family-friendly policies to effectively reduce the burden of parenting school-aged children in Korea.

Mothers' Parenting in an Era of Proactive Policing.

A family systems perspective suggests the repercussions of adolescent police contact likely extend beyond the adolescent to proliferate to the broader family unit, but little research investigates these relationships. I used data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, a longitudinal survey of children who became adolescents during an era of proactive policing, to examine the relationship between adolescent police contact and four aspects of family life: mothers' parenting stress, mothers' monitoring, mothers' discipline, and the mother-adolescent relationship. Adolescent police contact, especially invasive police contact, is associated with increased parenting stress, increased discipline, and decreased engagement, net of adolescent and family characteristics that increase the risk of police contact. There is also suggestive evidence that adolescent police contact is more consequential for family life when mothers themselves experienced recent police contact. These findings suggest the repercussions of police contact extend beyond the individual and proliferate to restructure family relationships.

Mindful Parenting, Caregiver Distress, and Conduct Problems in Children With Autism.

Children with autism may display an externalizing problem behavior, which are associated with increased parenting stress and depression in caregivers. Mindful parenting is defined as having a non-judgmental moment-to-moment awareness during caregiver-child interactions. The extant literature is mixed, with some reporting that associations between child problem behavior and parenting stress and depression vary by level of mindful parenting, while others have not found these relations. We sought to extend these explorations. Participants who were caregivers of 75 children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) ages 5-10, in the Pacific Northwestern region of the United States. Child conduct problems, parenting stress and caregiver depression, and mindful parenting were measured using caregiver-reported measures. Child conduct problems, parenting stress, and caregiver depression, and mindful parenting were all significantly correlated. The association between child conduct problems and parenting stress was significant for caregivers with high and low levels of mindful parenting. In contrast, the association between child conduct problems and caregiver depression was significant only for caregivers with low levels of mindful parenting. Our results suggest that mindful parenting may be a promising protective factor for the well-being of caregivers of children with autism. Implications are discussed.

Effects of Covid-19 lockdown on parental functioning in vulnerable families.

ObjectiveThe aim of this study was to increase the knowledge about how the initial Covid‐19 lockdown influenced parental functioning in vulnerable families.BackgroundThe Covid‐19 pandemic has caused major changes to family life. Using a natural experiment design can potentially adjudicate on former inconclusive findings about the effects of lockdown on parental functioning in vulnerable families.MethodResponses from parents in a sample of potentially vulnerable families in Norway were divided into a lockdown group if participating at baseline and during the initial Covid‐19 lockdown (n = 820 responses) or into a control group if participating at baseline and before lockdown (n = 1368 responses). Mixed model regression analyses were used to mimic a wait‐list design investigating direct lockdown effects on mental health, parenting stress, and three aspects of interparental conflicts, as well as moderation effects.ResultsThe lockdown group showed significantly higher levels of parenting stress compared with the control group, but no aversive lockdown effect on mental health or destructive conflicts were found. In fact, decreased levels of verbal aggression and child involvement in conflict were found during lockdown among parents living apart. Pre‐existing financial problems and conflict levels, age of youngest child, and parent gender did not moderate the lockdown effects.ConclusionThe initial lockdown did not seem to adversely affect parental functioning, beyond increased parenting stress. Caution should be taken when generalizing the findings as child effects and long‐term lockdown effects were not investigated.

Maternal Depressive Risk in Prenatal versus Postnatal Surgical Closure of Myelomeningocele: Associations with Parenting Stress and Child Outcomes

Introduction: Depressive risk is higher for mothers of infants with chronic medical conditions. The present study examined maternal depressive risk and associations with parent and child outcomes among mothers of young children who were randomized to either prenatal or postnatal surgical closure for myelomeningocele. Methods: Using the Management of Myelomeningocele Study database, maternal depressive risk was examined at 3 time points as follows: prior to birth, 12 months, and 30 months post birth. Separate multivariate analyses examined associations among change in depressive risk (between baseline and 30 months), parenting stress, and child outcomes at 30 months. Results: Mean scores were in the minimal depressive risk range at all the time points. Post birth depressive risk did not differ by prenatal versus postnatal surgery. Mean change scores reflected a decrease in depressive risk during the first 30 months. Only 1.1–4.5% of mothers reported depressive risk in the moderate to severe range across time points. Increased depressive risk during the first 30 months was associated with increased parenting stress scores and slightly lower child cognitive scores at 30 months. Conclusion: Most mothers reported minimal depressive risk that decreased over time, regardless of whether their infant underwent prenatal or postnatal surgery. Only a small percentage of mothers endorsed moderate to severe depressive risk, but an increase in depressive risk over time was associated with higher parental stress and slightly lower child cognitive development.

Intimate Partner Violence and Parenting: Examining the Roles of Parenting Stress, Timing, and Maternal Abuse History

Maternal intimate partner violence (IPV) exposure has been linked to negative parenting outcomes. Studies suggest that parenting stress is an intermediary between IPV exposure and parenting, though past work has relied on small, clinically- referred samples. Moreover, it is unclear if parenting is differentially affected by a mother’s recent versus past history of IPV exposure, or whether a mother’s childhood abuse history moderates the associations of IPV with parenting stress and parenting behaviors. The current study examines whether recent IPV, versus past IPV, has stronger associations with parenting stress and parenting behaviors and tests whether maternal abuse history moderates these associations. Using structural equation modeling, we tested relations between IPV (frequency and recency), parenting stress, and parenting behaviors cross-sectionally and longitudinally in a large community sample of IPV-exposed low-income Hispanic and African American mothers of children aged 0–14 years (N = 1159). We found that mothers who reported IPV exposure in the past year reported higher negative and lower positive parenting behaviors than mothers who reported less recent exposure. Further, we found that the frequency and timing of IPV exposure affected parenting indirectly through increased parenting stress. However, a childhood history of abuse did not appear to sensitize women to these effects. These findings suggest that psychological interventions aimed at reducing the subjective experience of parenting stress, as well as increased access to resources that reduce objective childcare burden, are important for promoting resilience among families exposed to violence.

Material Hardship, Mental Health, and Parenting Stress among Grandparent Kinship Providers in COVID-19

The COVID 19 pandemic has exposed the vulnerability of many families, including grandparent kinship families, to deal with a health/economic crisis. The fear of COVID-19 plus stay-at-home orders have increased individuals’ psychological distress. Moreover, school closures and homeschooling further increased parenting stress among caregivers. This study examined the relationship between material hardship and parenting stress among grandparent kinship providers and assessed grandparents’ mental health as a potential mediator to this relationship during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States. Grandparent kinship providers (N=362) that took primary care of their grandchildren participated in a cross-sectional survey via Qualtrics Panels in June 2020 in the United States. Descriptive and bivariate analyses, binary logistic regression, and mediation analyses were conducted using STATA 15.0. Experiencing material hardship (OR = 1.67, p < 0.001) was significantly associated with higher odds of parenting stress among grandparent kinship providers, and grandparents’ mental health (indirect effect = 0.11, 95% CI [0.01, 0.25]) partially mediated this association. Addressing material and mental health needs among grandparent kinship providers is critical to decreasing their parenting stress.

Developmental and medical factors associated with parenting stress in mothers of toddlers born very preterm in a neonatal follow-up clinic.

The purpose of this exploratory, cross-sectional study was to identify child-related factors associated with maternal parenting stress in toddlers born very preterm and followed in a neonatal follow-up (NFU) clinic. The study aimed to describe the associations of current medical complications and presence of developmental delays with total parenting stress. Participants were 53 mother-child dyads presenting in a NFU clinic. Mothers completed the Parenting Stress Index-Short Form (PSI-SF), and children were administered the Brigance Early Head Start Screen II. Medical variables were also collected from the child's medical record. Approximately 24% of mothers had at least one elevated subscale score on the PSI-SF. Regression analyses indicated that receipt of early intervention services was associated with increased parenting stress among mothers of toddlers born very preterm, though number of current medical complications was not. Parents of children born very preterm are at increased risk for parenting stress that extends beyond discharge from the neonatal intensive care unit . Clinicians working in NFU clinics are positioned to monitor for increased parenting stress, particularly among families of children with emerging signs of developmental delay.

Material hardship and parenting stress among grandparent kinship providers during the COVID-19 pandemic: The mediating role of grandparents’ mental health

BackgroundThe COVID-19 pandemic has exposed the vulnerability of many families, including grandparent kinship families, to deal with a health/economic crisis. The fear of COVID-19 plus stay-at-home orders have increased individuals’ psychological distress. Moreover, school closures and homeschooling further increased parenting stress among caregivers. ObjectivesThis study examined the relationship between material hardship and parenting stress among grandparent kinship providers, and assessed grandparents’ mental health as a potential mediator to this relationship during the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States. Participants and settingGrandparent kinship providers (N = 362) that took primary care of their grandchildren participated in a cross-sectional survey via Qualtrics Panels in June 2020 in the United States. MethodsDescriptive and bivariate analyses, binary logistic regression, and mediation analyses were conducted using STATA 15.0. ResultsSuffering material hardship was significantly associated with higher odds of experiencing parenting stress among grandparent kinship providers, and grandparents’ mental health partially mediated this association. ConclusionsAddressing material and mental health needs among grandparent kinship providers is critical to decreasing their parenting stress.

Toddler Externalizing Behavior, Social Support, and Parenting Stress: Examining a Moderator Model

ObjectiveThis study examined the possible moderating role of social support on the association between child externalizing behavior and parenting stress in a cross‐sectional sample of typically developing toddlers and their mothers.BackgroundChild externalizing behavior problems often emerge during the toddler years and are associated with increased parenting stress. Family stress theory posits that resources (e.g., social support) may buffer the effects of stressors such as child behavior concerns. However, limited empirical research has examined the impact of social support on parenting stress in parents of typically developing toddlers.MethodThe sample included 1,036 mother–toddler dyads and was representative of the broader region in which the research took place (59% African American, 58% married/cohabitating, 53% with high school diploma). General linear models were performed.ResultsThe interaction term was not significant; therefore, a moderator model was not supported. However, the final model demonstrated that child behavior problems were associated with higher levels of parenting stress; and lower levels of both amount of support and satisfaction with social support were associated with additional increases in parenting stress.ConclusionResults suggest that parents who have low levels of social support and a toddler with higher levels of externalizing behaviors are at particular risk for experiencing elevated levels of parenting stress.ImplicationsGiven that externalizing behaviors are common during the toddler years, future research is needed to better understand how social support benefits parents of toddlers and to develop new or modify existing interventions to increase social support and reduce parenting stress.