Increased Feeding Frequency Research Articles

Dry matter intake, body condition score, and grazing behavior of nonlactating, pregnant dairy cows fed kale or grass once versus twice daily during winter

The objective of this study was to examine the effect of wintering pregnant, nonlactating dairy cows outdoors on either kale or grass, fed in 1 [11 kg dry matter (DM) of kale or grass + 3 kg DM of baled barley straw offered in the morning] or 2 allocations (5.5 kg DM of kale or grass grazed + 1.5 kg DM of barley straw offered morning and afternoon) per day. The body condition score (BCS) gain over the 47-d winter feeding period was higher for grass-fed (0.5 BCS units) than kale-fed cows (0.3 BCS units), but was unaffected by feeding frequency. Forage DM utilization was higher for kale-fed (97%) than grass-fed cows (76%), leading to higher estimated dry matter intake (DMI) in kale-fed (10.7 kg of DM/cow per day) than grass-fed cows (7.7 kg of DM/cow per day). Forage DM utilization and estimated DMI were not affected by feeding frequency. Prehension bite rate was greater for grass-fed (37.3 bites/min) than kale-fed cows (7.6 bites/min), but more mastication bites were required for kale-fed cows. Cumulative DMI after 2, 3, and 6 h was greater in cows allocated forage once than twice a day and for kale than grass after 3 and 6 h. Mean eating time was greater for cows offered forage once (477 min) than twice (414 min) per day. In conclusion, increasing feeding frequency from once to twice per day decreased the intake rate within the first 6 h after allocation, but did not affect total daily DMI, DM utilization or BCS gain. Thus, moving cows more frequently would not have any significant advantage. It may increase labor requirements, thereby creating a more challenging wintering management than feeding once per day.

Effects of feed delivery frequency in different environmental conditions on time budget of lactating dairy cows.

This study aimed to examine the influence of feed delivery frequency and environmental conditions on daily time budget of lactating dairy cows. The study was carried out in two commercial dairy farms with Holstein herds. Fifty lactating dairy cows milked in automatic milking units (AMS farm) and 96 primiparous lactating dairy cows milked in a conventional milking parlour (conventional farm) were exposed to different frequencies of feed delivery replicated in different periods of the year (warm and mild) that were characterized by different temperature-humidity indices (THI). On each farm, feeding treatments consisted of two different feed delivery frequencies (1× and 2× on the AMS farm; 2× and 3× on the conventional farm). All behaviours of the cows were monitored for the last 8 d of each treatment period using continuous video recording. The two data sets from different farm systems were considered separately for analysis. On both farms, environmental conditions expressed as THI affected time budgets and the pattern of the behavioural indices throughout the day. The variation in the frequency of feed delivery seems to affect the cow's time budget only in a limited way. Standing time of cows on the conventional farm and the time spent by cows in the milking waiting area on the AMS farm both increased in response to increased feeding frequency. Although feed delivery frequency showed limited influence on cow's time budget, the effect on standing time could be carefully considered, especially on farms equipped with AMS where the type of cow traffic system (e.g., milking first) might amplify the negative consequences of more frequent feed delivery. Further investigations are required to evaluate the effect of THI and feed delivery frequency on other aspects of behavioural activity.

Effect of Feeding Frequency on Growth Performance and Survival of Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus L. 1758) in a Cage Culture System in Lake Hora-Arsedi, Ethiopia

In this study, the growth performance and survival rate of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) subjected to different feeding frequencies were evaluated in cage culture. Juveniles with mean initial weight of 35.99 ± 0.23g were stocked in 1 m3 net cages and assigned to a duplicate of 50 fish in a completely randomized design in six treatments. T1 were fed 3% of their body weight divided into four equal meals per day for the first three months and then allowed to feed two times a day for the next three months; T2 and T3 were fed 3% of their body weight divided equally at frequency of four and two feedings/day, respectively, throughout the experiment. Feed was given once a day (without dividing) for T4 and once every other day (without dividing) for T5 throughout the experiment. All treatments were fed pelleted diet except the control groups in which fish were provided with only the natural food. The mean specific growth rates (SGR), Feed conversion ratio (FCR) and Feed conversion efficiency (FCE) were statistically similar for T1 and T2, but they were higher than T3, T4 and T5. However, mean weight gain, mean daily gain and Condition Factor (CF) showed a significant difference (P<0.05) among experimental groups. In conclusion, growth performance and net yield were increased with increased feeding frequency, so frequent feeding was recommended for optimum result of O. niloticus in cage culture. It was also revealed that cage culture at experimental level has no effect on the water quality and plankton abundance.

Increased feeding frequency increased milk fat yield and may reduce the severity of subacute ruminal acidosis in higher-risk cows

The objectives of this study were to determine whether feeding behavior is different between cows at higher or lower risk for subacute ruminal acidosis (SARA) and whether increasing feeding frequency could be used to reduce the severity of SARA in higher-risk cows. In preliminary studies, 16 ruminally cannulated lactating cows were fed high-grain diets once per day to increase the risk of SARA. After a 17-d diet adaptation, ruminal pH was measured every 30 s over 24 h. Cows were classified as higher-risk (n = 7) or lower-risk (n = 9) for SARA based on an acidosis index (area of pH <5.8/dry matter intake). Feeding behavior was recorded every 5 min over the same 24 h. The 24-h observation period was analyzed in 3 periods of 8 h after feeding. Although there was no significant difference in overall dry matter intake, higher-risk cows spent more time eating in the first 8-h period after feeding than lower-risk cows (186 vs. 153 min) and less time eating in the third 8-h period (19 vs. 43 min). In the primary experiment, 8 ruminally cannulated lactating cows were fed a high-grain diet once per day (1×; 0800 h) or 3 times per day (3×; 0800, 1500, and 2000 h) in a crossover design with 21-d periods (16 d of treatment adaptation and 5 d of data collection). Rumen pH and feeding behavior were measured over 72 h. Behavior data were summarized separately for the 3 periods (0800 to 1500, 1500 to 2200, and 2200 to 0800 h). Four cows were categorized as higher-risk and 4 as lower-risk, based on their acidosis index. The 3× feeding reduced eating time between 0800 and 1500 h (99 vs. 145 min) and increased eating time between 2200 and 0800 h (76 vs. 43 min) for all cows, regardless of category, compared with 1× feeding. For higher-risk cows, 3× feeding reduced the area below pH 5.8 (51 vs. 98 pH × min/d), but it did not affect rumen pH for the lower-risk cows. Milk yield was not different between groups, but 3× feeding increased milk fat yield (1.22 vs. 1.08 kg/d) for all cows, regardless of category, compared to 1× feeding. Our results suggest that cows at higher risk for SARA eat less evenly throughout the day; increasing feeding frequency may reduce the severity of SARA in higher-risk cows and may also increase milk fat yield.

Effects of feeding frequency and density on growth, energy budget and physiological performance of sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus (Selenka)

Feeding frequency and density are two of the most important factors that directly affect the growth and physiology of sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus. In the present study, a 60-day experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of feeding frequency (1 time, 2 times and 3 times per day) and stocking density (D10, D20, D40 and D60) on growth performance, feed utilization, endocrine response and energy budget of sea cucumber. The results revealed that there was no significant interaction between feeding frequency and stocking density on final weight and specific growth rate (SGR). The maximum SGR occurred at treatment of stocking density D10 with feeding thrice per day. Stepwise multiple regression analysis showed that SGRW and SGRE increased with increasing feeding frequency, and decreased with the increase of stocking density. Density had significant influence on coefficient of variation (CV) for the sea cucumber body weight. For D10 and D20, no significant difference in CV was found between different feeding frequencies. Feed intake, energy intake and feces production rate were significantly affected by feeding frequency, stocking density and their interaction. Density also had significant influence on food conversion efficiency and protein efficiency ratio. Apparent digestibility coefficients of crude protein and crude lipid exhibited remarkable descending trends as stocking density increased. The energy for growth decreased and energy required for metabolism increased with the increase of stocking density, suggesting that crowding stress modified their energy allocation by inhibiting the accumulation of growth energy and accelerating energy consumption of sea cucumber. Cortisol level in coelomic fluid of sea cucumber significantly increased with the increase of stocking density, which could generate energy to satisfy the increasing demand of stress-related energy. Lactate level significantly elevated, and glucose level in coelomic fluid and glycogen in muscle showed remarkable descending trends from D10 to D60, implying long-term energy consumption under high stocking density. Feeding frequency had significant influence on glucose, glycogen and cortisol levels. To some extent, increasing feeding frequency could effectively reduce coefficient of variation of sea cucumber, especially under high stocking density. Statement of relevance•In the present study, a 60-day experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of feeding frequency (1 time, 2 times and 3 times per day) and stocking density (D10, D20, D40 and D60) on growth performance, feed utilization, endocrine response and energy budget of sea cucumber.•Increasing feeding frequency could effectively reduce coefficient of variation of sea cucumber.•The present study provided valuable information for the intensive culture of A. japonicus.

FEEDING FREQUENCY OF NILE TILAPIA FED RATIONS SUPPLEMENTED WITH AMINO ACIDS

ABSTRACT: The present study evaluated the feeding frequency of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fed low-protein diets (29% crude protein) supplemented with commercial amino acids (L-lysine-HCl, DL-methionine, and L-threonine). Sex-reversed Nile tilapia (240) of Thai origin, with initial body weight of 0.93 ± 0.03 g each, were allocated in a completely randomized design, to five groups with various feeding frequencies (2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 times a day). Six replications were conducted on separate experimental units comprising eight fishes each. The fish were maintained in 30 130-L aquariums, each equipped with individual water supply and controlled temperature and aeration. Fish were fed identical quantities among all treatments over a period of 30 days. Performance parameters, feed conversion efficiency, body composition, daily protein and fat deposition rates, and nitrogen retention efficiency were evaluated. Increased feeding frequency affected neither performance parameters nor body composition. Values for protein and fat deposition rates and nitrogen retention efficiency were significantly lower in fish fed twice daily than in those fed five times daily. Fish subjected to other feeding frequencies yielded intermediate values without any significant differences. The minimum feeding frequency of Nile tilapia fingerlings fed a low-protein ration supplemented with commercial amino acids is three times a day, owing to increased protein deposition rates and nitrogen retention efficiency.

Impact evaluation of positive deviance hearth in Migori county, Kenya

A Positive Deviance (PD) Hearth intervention is a home and neighborhood-based nutrition program for children who are at risk for protein-energy malnutrition in a low resource community. The intervention uses the ‘Positive Deviance’ approach to identify those behaviors practiced by the mothers or caretakers of well-nourished children from poor families and transfers such positive practices to other mothers who are equally disadvantaged economically. Positive Deviance Hearth intervention is designed to treat malnourished children, enable the families to sustain their rehabilitation at home on their own and to prevent malnutrition in younger siblings. However, PD Hearth intervention monitoring system in Migori only assesses a program’s ability to treat, one of the three PD Hearth objectives. Thus, there was need for impact evaluation to measure outcomes of the PD Hearth intervention to sustain rehabilitation and prevent malnutrition in younger siblings. The objectives of the study were to determine the level to which PD Hearth enables families to sustain rehabilitation at home on their own and to identify the practices which influence PD Hearth outcomes. The study was designed as a pipeline quasi-experimental and mixed method was used to collect data and perform statistical analyses. Single stage cluster sampling was used to identify 53 and 54 children on the intervention and comparison group in five communities. Weight measurements of the children on the intervention aged 6 to 59 months at the entry, exit and graduation stages were retrieved from Kenya Medical Research Institute Family AIDS Care and Education Services programme activities reports. Anthropometry (height measurements) for the children on the intervention and comparison children was taken. Caregivers filled in a questionnaire, assisted by the researchers as necessary. At entry, 18.9% children on the intervention had moderate underweight while 43.4% had mild underweight. At current status though, 3.8% and 34.0% had moderate and mild underweight respectively. The regression model predicted that Weight-for-Height (WAZ) of the children on the intervention at current status lied on 51.5 percentile, thus, normal for underweight. Increased feeding frequency made the largest contribution to weight gain than other caregiver practices. Therefore, the Migori County government in collaboration with the Ministry of Health needs to scale up PD Hearth intervention to reverse cases of Moderate Acute Malnutrition (MAM) and prevent Severe Acute Malnutrition (SAM) in the County.

Feeding frequency and growth performance of juvenile pink shrimp (Farfantepenaeus paulensis)

ABSTRACTIt is generally believed that increasing feeding frequency has immediate benefits, including reduced nutrient leaching and increased shrimp growth. In this context, the aim this work was to evaluate the effect of feeding frequency in growth performance of Farfantepenaeus paulensis. Juveniles of Farfantepenaeus paulensis were grown for 30 days in pen enclosures, at a stocking density of 5 shrimp/m2. The shrimp were fed on feeding trays at a rate of 8% of their biomass per day, with treatments of one, two, three and four times per day, with four replicates each. The results showed no differences (5% probability) in biomass gain of F. paulensis when feed was offered two, three or four times per day. However, it was observed that the once a day frequency had a negative influence on weight gain for this species of shrimp. We conclude that the supply of food with 35% crude protein twice a day is sufficient for the growth of F paulensis. Feeding frequency of three or four times can provide increased spending in the cultivation of juveniles of this species.

Dynamics of intracohort cannibalism and size heterogeneity in juvenile barramundi (Lates calcarifer) at different stocking densities and feeding frequencies

Abstract Intracohort cannibalism is a major concern for the aquaculture of piscivorous fish species. This study investigates the effects of stocking density and feeding frequency on dynamics of cannibalism, growth and size distribution in juvenile barramundi ( Lates calcarifer ) over time. Cannibalism was significantly reduced or delayed by the use of high feeding frequency and low fish density. In the fish fed once a day, food restriction stimulated cannibalism through heterogeneous growth and size dispersal due to hunger and food competition. The number of potential cannibals gradually emerged from the conspecifics and provoked cannibalism over time. The increase of feeding frequency from one to three times a day enabled most fish to gain access to the formulated diet and achieve homogeneous growth rates through the reduction of food competition. Consequently, the emergence of potential cannibals and the dynamics of size dispersal, skewness and cannibalism at a high feeding frequency were postponed in comparison with the feeding once a day. The increase in fish density intensified cannibalism regardless of feeding frequency. The present study indicates that the increase of feeding frequency and decrease of fish density can significantly reduce size heterogeneity and consequently alleviate or postpone the cannibalism in barramundi.

Feeding frequency mediates aggression and cannibalism in larval hatchery-reared spotted seatrout, Cynoscion nebulosus

Cannibalism is a major cause of mortality in the intensive culture of the spotted seatrout, Cynoscion nebulosus. Increased feeding frequency may reduce attacks on conspecifics and enhance growth due to less energy spent on aggression, or more efficient digestion of smaller ration parcels. The goal of this study was to examine the effects of feeding frequency on aggressive and cannibalistic behaviors in larval hatchery-reared spotted seatrout. Ten-day-old reared larvae stocked at 30 fish l− 1 were subjected to one of four feeding frequencies (every 1, 2, 4, or 8 h) for eight days by subdividing the total ration of enriched Artemia accordingly. Blocks of three replicate tanks per treatment were monitored from 2-h before feeding until 1-h after feeding via four video cameras. For each tank, two pre-selected 30 min segments starting 30 min before and 30 min after each feeding event were scored for the number of nips, chases, and captures (Type 1 cannibalism). Three main factors, Frequency, Day, and Time were significant for all three behaviors. Significant Frequency × Time interactions along with follow-up tests of interaction means indicated that the numbers of nips and chases were lower after feeding than before feeding for all but the most frequent (1-h) feeding frequency. The 2-h frequency treatment elicited the fewest aggressive and cannibalistic acts, likely reflecting the best balance between the opposing effects of ration size on satiation and feeding frequency on gut evacuation time. Specific growth rate (SGR) was relatively high and did not differ between the 2-h and conventional 8-h frequencies; but size heterogeneity was significantly higher for the 8-h frequency treatment.

Histopathological effects of cypermethrin on liver of Aphanius sophiae (Heckel, 1849) using rank-based estimation for linear models

Ecotoxicological studies that use histological techniques enjoy descriptive approach in explaining the damages to tissues. In the present study, a rank-based estimation for linear models was used to examine significant difference between levels of cypermethrin on histological changes of the liver in Aphanius sophiae . The toxicity of cypermethrin associated with certain environmental factors such as salinity and feeding frequency was studied in the Sophiae toothed carp ( A. sophiae ). Specimens were exposed to concentration of 0.02 μg L -1 cypermethrin, two levels of salinity (0 and 14 ppt) and feeding frequencies (two times a day and one time every three days) under laboratory conditions. After the end of 14 days period of the experiment, the liver tissues were removed and histological sections prepared. The results revealed that liver tissues alter significantly with the changes in salinity and diet frequency. The results also showed that sensitivity to cypermethrin increased with decreasing salinity and increasing feeding frequency. The results suggested using A. sophiae as an indicator for cypermethrin assessment in aquatic ecosystems and appropriateness of rank-based estimation for linear models, to evaluate the effect of toxins on histopathological alternations.

Obesity-linked homologues TfAP-2 and Twz establish meal frequency in Drosophila melanogaster.

In all animals managing the size of individual meals and frequency of feeding is crucial for metabolic homeostasis. In the current study we demonstrate that the noradrenalin analogue octopamine and the cholecystokinin (CCK) homologue Drosulfakinin (Dsk) function downstream of TfAP-2 and Tiwaz (Twz) to control the number of meals in adult flies. Loss of TfAP-2 or Twz in octopaminergic neurons increased the size of individual meals, while overexpression of TfAP-2 significantly decreased meal size and increased feeding frequency. Of note, our study reveals that TfAP-2 and Twz regulate octopamine signaling to initiate feeding; then octopamine, in a negative feedback loop, induces expression of Dsk to inhibit consummatory behavior. Intriguingly, we found that the mouse TfAP-2 and Twz homologues, AP-2β and Kctd15, co-localize in areas of the brain known to regulate feeding behavior and reward, and a proximity ligation assay (PLA) demonstrated that AP-2β and Kctd15 interact directly in a mouse hypothalamus-derived cell line. Finally, we show that in this mouse hypothalamic cell line AP-2β and Kctd15 directly interact with Ube2i, a mouse sumoylation enzyme, and that AP-2β may itself be sumoylated. Our study reveals how two obesity-linked homologues regulate metabolic homeostasis by modulating consummatory behavior.

Effects of feeding frequency and dietary protein levels on juvenile allogynogenetic gibel carp (Carassius auratus gibelio) var. CAS III: growth, feed utilization and serum free essential amino acids dynamics

A 8 week growth trial of three feeding frequencies (2, 4 and 6 meals day(-1)) and three dietary protein levels (30%, 34% and 38%) was conducted to investigate the influence of feeding frequency and dietary protein level on growth, feed utilization, serum free essential amino acids (EAA) dynamics and nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), carbon (C) retention in juvenile allogynogenetic gibel carp (Carassius auratus gibelio) 'CAS III'. The results showed that feeding frequency and dietary protein level increased feed intake (FI), specific growth rate (SGR) and feed efficiency (FE). SGR increased significantly with the increase in feeding frequency and dietary protein level. But, the increase in dietary protein level from 30% to 38% in group 6 meals day(-1) did not result in better growth. Compared with the group of 4 meals day(-1) 9 38%, the fish fed the diet containing 30% crude protein at 6 meals day(-1) obtained similar SGR but showed lower FIp (protein intake). Compared with 2 meals day(-1), NREs (nitrogen retention efficiency) of 4 and 6 meals day(-1) were relatively higher. PRE (phosphorus retention efficiency) and CRE (carbon retention efficiency) increased significantly with feeding frequency while TNW (total nitrogen waste output), TPW (total phosphorus waste output) and TCW (total carbon waste output) decreased significantly. Feeding frequency and dietary protein level increased trypsin activity. Serum free EAA concentrations varied more synchronously at 6 meals day(-1) than 2 meals day(-1). It could be concluded that increasing feeding frequency could improve growth by increasing feed intake and feed efficiency for juvenile gibel carp. The increase in feeding frequency showed protein-sparing effect.

Effects of feeding frequency and dietary water content on voluntary physical activity in healthy adult cats

Low physical activity has been identified as a major risk factor for the development of feline obesity and diabetes. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of increased meal frequency and dietary water content on voluntary physical activity in cats fed to maintain BW. Ten adult lean neutered male cats were used in 2 tests, both crossover studies composed of a 14-d adaptation period, followed by a 7-d measurement of physical activity from d 15 to d 22 using Actical activity collars. Cats were group housed for most of the day, except for times when they were individually housed in cages to access their diet under a 16:8 h light:dark cycle. In Exp. 1, the difference in voluntary physical activity among cats fed 1, 2, 4, or a random number of meals per day were tested in a 4 × 4 Latin square design in 4 individual rooms. In Exp. 2, the effect of increasing dietary water content on voluntary physical activity was tested in a crossover design including a 5-d phase for fecal and urine collection from d 22 to 27. Cats were randomly assigned to 2 rooms and fed a dry commercial diet with or without added water (70% hydrated) twice daily. Activity levels were expressed as "activity counts" per epoch (15 s). In Exp. 1, average daily activity level for 1-meal-fed cats was lower than 4-meal-fed (P = 0.004) and random-meal-fed (P = 0.02) cats, especially during the light period. The activity level of cats during the dark period was greater in 1-meal-fed cats compared with cats fed 2 meals (P = 0.008) or 4 meals (P = 0.007) daily. Two-hour food anticipatory activity (FAA) before scheduled meal times for 1-meal-fed cats was lower (P < 0.001) than for the multiple-meal-fed cats. In Exp. 2, average daily activity level of cats fed the 70% hydrated diet tended to be higher (P = 0.06) than cats fed the dry diet, especially during the dark period (P = 0.007). Two-hour FAA before the afternoon meal for cats fed the 70% hydrated diet was lower (P < 0.05) than for cats fed the dry diet. Cats fed the 70% hydrated diet had greater daily fecal (P = 0.008) and urinary (P = 0.001) outputs and lower (P < 0.001) urinary specific gravity compared to cats fed the dry diet. In conclusion, increased feeding frequency and dietary water content, without changing energy intake or dietary macronutrient composition, appear to promote physical activity, which may aid in weight management in cats.

Stocking density effects on aggressive and cannibalistic behaviors in larval hatchery-reared spotted seatrout, Cynoscion nebulosus

Abstract Cannibalism and aggression are major sources of mortality in the larviculture of the spotted seatrout, Cynoscion nebulosus . High stocking density can either increase cannibalism by increasing the likelihood of encounters between aggressors and prey or decrease cannibalism by interfering with normal territorial or aggressive behaviors. The goal of this study was to assess the effect of stocking density on cannibalism and aggressive behaviors in hatchery-reared spotted seatrout. Seven-day-old larvae were stocked randomly into three replicates of three different densities (15 (233 total fish), 30 (465 total fish), and 60 (930 total fish) L − 1 ) in 15.5-L aquaria. Feeding was conducted every 8 h based on residual rotifer or Artemia counts. Growth was determined 6 days poststocking at the conclusion of the experiment. To quantify cannibalism and aggressive behaviors, three cameras filmed three tanks for 9 h each day. Recorded behaviors were quantified for three selected 30-minute segments per tank per day: 1 h, 4 h, and 7 h post-feeding. Aggressive acts were scored as: nip (aggressor strikes prey causing prey to dart), chase (aggressor moves more than one body length toward prey), and capture (predator captures and holds prey but unable to consume). In all stocking densities there was a significant increase in aggression and cannibalism with time since feeding. Growth was significantly higher in the lower density treatment. An observed density threshold existed at a stocking density of 30 fish L − 1 , beyond which the intensity of aggressive behaviors did not increase. Based on the results of this study, aggression in early stage hatchery-reared spotted seatrout might be alleviated with increased feeding frequency. Further, spotted seatrout could possibly be cultured at densities higher than the current protocol allows.

Effect of feeding frequency on growth, feed utilization, body composition and waste output of juvenile golden pompano (Trachinotus ovatus) reared in net pens

A 6-week feeding trial was conducted to examine the effect of feeding frequency on growth, feed utilization efficiency, body composition and waste output of juvenile golden pompano Trachinotus ovatus reared in net pens. Fish (10.3 ± 0.5 g) were either fed a formulated diet containing 48.4% crude protein and 5.7% crude lipid at 0.5, 1, 2, 3 or 4 meals per day or fed a raw fish feed at two meals per day as a control. The weight gain (WG) increased with increasing feeding frequency from 0.5 to 3 meals per day (P < 0.05), but did not significantly change with the further increase in feeding frequency from 3 to 4 meals per day (P > 0.05). The feed intake (FI) was lower in fish fed at 0.5 or 1 meal per day than in fish fed at 2, 3 or 4 meals per day (P < 0.05). No significant differences were found in the feed conversion ratio (FCR), nitrogen retention efficiency (NRE), condition factor (CF), nitrogen waste output (NWO) and phosphorus waste output (PWO) between fish fed at 1, 2, 3 or 4 meals per day (P > 0.05), whereas no significant difference was found in the phosphorus retention efficiency (PRE) among the feeding treatments (P > 0.05). The body lipid content increased, whereas the contents of moisture and ash decreased, with the increase in feeding frequency (P < 0.05). At the same feeding frequency, fish fed the formulated diet exhibited lower FI, FCR, HSI, body moisture content, NWO and PWO, but higher NRE, PRE, body lipid content and body phosphorus content than those of fish fed the raw fish feed (P < 0.05). These results suggest that the formulated diet can satisfy nutrient requirements of juvenile golden pompano reared in net pens, and the suitable feeding frequency is 3 meals per day.

Effect of feeding frequency on growth, feed efficiency and nutrient utilization of juvenile flounder (Platichthys flesus luscus)

An experiment was conducted to determine the effects of optimal feeding frequency on growth performance, feed efficiency, nutrient utilization and body composition in juvenile flounder. Four feeding frequencies of one (F1), two (F2), three (F3) and four (F4) times a day were evaluated as treatments in triplicate for a period of 60 days. Forty-seven hatchery produced juveniles (2.5 ± 0.7 g) were stocked into 160-L rectangular fiberglass tanks and fed with a commercial diet containing 54 % protein to satiation. At the end of the experiment, the final weight of F1, F2, F3 and F4 were 5.06 ± 0.29, 5.91 ± 0.42, 6.24 ± 0.42 and 6.16 ± 0.46 g, respectively. Growth rates and feed consumption were highest in F3 and lowest in F1. Feed conversion ratios ranged between 0.83 ± 0.04 and 0.90 ± 0.03. There were no significant differences in either moisture or ash content of the fish groups. Protein content decreased with increasing feeding frequency, while lipid content partly increased with increasing feeding frequency. Nitrogen intake and lipid intake were significantly higher in fish fed under F3 and F4 treatment, whereas the nitrogen gain decreased and lipid gain increased with increasing feeding frequency. It is concluded that the flounder juveniles can achieve maximum growth performance and better nutrient utilization when they are fed a given ration two times a day. The findings have practical significance toward establishing an appropriate flounder nursery rearing and will directly benefit the nursery operations.

Associations between herd-level feeding management practices, feed sorting, and milk production in freestall dairy farms

The challenges associated with group-housed dairy cows include within-herd variability in nutrient consumption and milk production, which may be related to feeding management. The objective of this observational study was to examine the association of herd-level feeding management factors, feed sorting, and milk production. Twenty-two freestall herds with an average lactating herd size of 162±118 cows, feeding total mixed rations, were each studied for 7 consecutive days in summer and winter. In cases of multiple feeding groups within a herd, the highest producing group of cows with an even distribution of days in milk and parity was selected for this study. The average group size studied was 83±31 cows. The average study group consisted of cows 187±47 days in milk, with a parity of 2.3±0.6, consuming 24.3±2.6kg of dry matter, with an average group-level yield of 34.3±6kg of milk/d, 3.7±0.3% milk fat, and 3.2±0.18% milk protein. Milk production parameters, including yield, fat, and protein, were recorded through regular Dairy Herd Improvement milk testing. A survey of feeding management practices and barn characteristics was administered on each farm. The amounts of feed offered and refused were recorded and sampled daily to assess dry matter intake (DMI) and particle size distribution. Feeding twice per day compared with once per day was associated with an average increase of 1.42kg of DMI, 2.0kg of milk yield, and less sorting against long ration particles (>19mm). Every 2% group-level selective refusal (sorting) of long particles was associated with 1kg/d of reduction in milk yield. A 10cm/cow increase in feed bunk space was associated with a 0.06-percentage-point increase in group-average milk fat and a 13% decrease in group-average somatic cell count. These results support that herd-level management practices to promote feed access, such as increased feeding frequency and bunk space, may improve DMI and promote more balanced nutrient intake and greater milk production.

Effects of feeding frequency and photoperiod on water quality and crop production in a tilapia–water spinach raft aquaponics system

A factorial arrangement of 6 treatments, 2 photoperiods for water spinach Ipomoea aquatica (12-h or 24-h light per day) X 3 feeding frequencies for red tilapia Oreochromis sp. (an equal daily ration evenly fed 6, 4 or 2 times at 4-h, 6-h or 12-h interval, respectively) were assigned to 12 tanks. Each tank was an aquaponics system containing fish and raft-supporting plant. Water loss in 4 weeks was 3.3%, due to leaf transpiration mainly and evaporation. Water quality remained safe and stable. No fish died. Overall average weight gain was 43.9% for fish and 169.0% for plant. 24-h light resulted in 2.4% higher fish growth, 12% higher plant growth and lower accumulation of all nitrogen and phosphate species in water than 12-h light. Increased feeding frequency favored stable and good water quality and fastened fish growth and plant growth by as much as 4.9% and 11%, respectively.

The effect of increasing feeding frequency on performance, plasma hormones and metabolites, and hepatic lipid metabolism of broiler breeder hens

An experiment was conducted to study the effects of feeding regimens on reproductive performance, plasma hormone and metabolite levels, and hepatic lipid metabolism of Cobb 500 broiler breeder hens from 26 to 38 wk of age. Seventy-two birds were used in a completely randomized design with 3 treatments, each replicated 4 times. Treatments were as follows: 1) once a day feeding, in which birds were fed once a day at 0615 h (control), 2) twice a day feeding, in which daily allocated feed was fed in 2 equal meals at 0615 and 1215 h, and 3) thrice a day feeding in which daily allocated feed was offered in 3 equal meals at 0615, 1215, and 1815 h. Through 38 wk of age, total hen-day egg production in the hens fed twice and thrice a day was greater (67.1 and 67.2 vs. 62.2 eggs/hen, P < 0.01). Similarly, egg weight was higher (P < 0.01) in birds fed more than once a day. Multi-meal-fed birds had significantly lower plasma triiodothyronine and glucose at 32 wk and also lower glucose and cholesterol, and higher 17β-estradiol levels at 38 wk than those fed once a day (P ≤ 0.05). Hepatic expression of malic enzyme, fatty acid synthase, acetyl-CoA carboxylase, and ATP citrate lyase relative to β-actin decreased (P < 0.05) in birds fed twice and thrice a day compared with birds fed once a day at peak egg production (32 wk). In contrast, feeding regimens did not affect the hepatic gene expression of lipogenic enzymes after peak egg production at 38 wk. Stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1 (SCD1) gene expression was constant over dietary regimens. There was no difference in malic enzyme activity in multi-meal-fed birds at 38 wk. In summary, feeding broiler breeder hens 2 or 3 meals per day improved the reproductive performance during the early lay cycle. Implementing twice or thrice a day feeding regimens altered hepatic lipogenic gene expression in broiler breeder hens only at peak egg production, which indicated a short-term effect of increasing feeding frequency on hepatic lipid metabolism.