Increasing Water Demand Research Articles

Assessment of Water Quality in Ganga River Ghats of Varanasi District, Uttar Pradesh, India

Water is the most vital biosphere component since it sustains all life, circulates and cycles nutrients. Water is also necessary for power generation, navigation, agricultural irrigation and sewage disposal. The increasing water demand is a result of the rising population and industrialization and has severely compromised water quality. Water quality assessment is the most important process for evaluating the chemical characteristics of water bodies. To assess whether the water is suitable for a variety of uses after locating any pollutants, contaminants, or other potentially hazardous compounds that may be present in the water. A systematic study was conducted to assess the water quality in the Ganga river in the Ghats of Varanasi district of Uttar Pradesh, India, from January to March 2019. The assessment involves water samples from different Ghats along the river, namely Babua Pandey Ghat (G1), Digpatia Ghat (G2), Chausatti Ghat (G3), Ranamahal Ghat (G4), and Darbhanga Ghat (G5). The analytical data from various physico-chemical parameters indicates that the pH values were found to be near neutral, electrical conductivity (EC) did not differ significantly, Ca+Mg varied from 22.80 to 28.40 mg/L, Cl- was found to be 2.40 to 3.20 mg/L, Na+ varied from 1.0 to 1.10 mg/L, K+ and SO42- showed a similar trend, TS was varied from 400 to 1200 mg/L, DO varied from 5.80 to 7.30 mg/L, COD varied from 16.0 to 22.40 mg/L, NO3- varied from 25.27 to 29.60 mg/L, B varied from 4.90 to 5.80 mg/L, SAR is 0.27 to 0.33 mg/L, The Bureau of Indian Standard (BIS) has been considered to assess the suitability for drinking and other purposes and It concluded that some of the parameters were almost constant for all the five Ghats samples, like Na+ and K+ content, while other parameters varied. Out of thirteen parameters, only three (NO3-, B, and Cl-) showed an increasing trend.

Calcined Clays from Nigeria-Properties and Performance of Supplementary Cementitious Materials Suitable for Producing Level 1 Concrete.

In this work, four naturally occurring (two kaolinite-rich and two smectite-rich) clay samples were collected from different areas around the Ashaka cement production plant, located in Gombe State, Nigeria and calcined in a laboratory. The mineralogical characterization of the clays was carried out by XRD. The hydration kinetics of the calcined clay-cement systems were monitored by isothermal calorimetry. Workability was determined using the flow table method. The reactivity of the calcined clays was determined from the solubility of Si and Al ions and the strength activity index. All calcined clays studied met the requirements of ASTM C618 for the use of natural pozzolans as a partial replacement for hydraulic cement. The metasmectite clays yielded a higher specific surface area, increased water demand, and less reactive Si and Al ions compared to the metakaolin clays. The two calcined clay groups require the addition of superplasticizer to achieve a workability class similar to the Portland cement mortar system. They can be used to replace Portland cement at replacement levels of up to 45%, in combination with limestone powder to form an LC3 cement, thereby achieving at least a "Level 1" reduction in greenhouse gas emissions.

Future water security under climate change: a perspective of the Grand River Watershed

Abstract Climate change poses a threat to the water security of the Grand River Watershed (GRW) by altering the precipitation patterns and other weather variables, which affect streamflow and freshwater availability. Therefore, in this study, a Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model for the GRW, Ontario, Canada, was used to assess the blue and green water scarcity for future periods for future sustainable management of freshwater resources in the region. The ensemble results predicted a warmer and wetter future for the GRW. The ensemble model result, when considering both emission scenarios and future periods, showed that blue water (BW) is projected to increase by 23–40% while green water storage (GWS) is projected to experience an overall decrease (2–8%). The results suggested that BW may become more scarce compared to green water in the future. The scarcity of BW is primarily due to the projected increase in population growth and water demand in the watershed. Green water scarcity in some regions indicated that changes in irrigation might be needed in the future in some parts of the watershed. The results indicate that the careful planning is essential for future water management in GRW.

Hydraulic head change predictions in groundwater models using a probabilistic neural network

Groundwater resource management is an increasingly complicated task that is expected to only get harder and more important with future climate change and increasing water demands resulting in an increasing need for fast and accurate decision support systems. Numerical flow simulations are accurate but slow, while response matrix methods are fast but only accurate in near-linear problems. This paper presents a method based on a probabilistic neural network that predicts hydraulic head changes from groundwater abstraction with uncertainty estimates, that is both fast and useful for non-linear problems. A generalized method of constructing and training such a network is demonstrated and applied to a groundwater model case of the San Pedro River Basin. The accuracy and speed of the neural network are compared to results using MODFLOW and a constructed response matrix of the model. The network has fast predictions with results similar to the full numerical solution. The network can adapt to non-linearities in the numerical model that the response matrix method fails at resolving. We discuss the application of the neural network in a decision support framework and describe how the uncertainty estimate accurately describes the uncertainty related to the construction of the training data set.

Total Maximum Daily Load Application Using Biological Oxygen Demand, Chemical Oxygen Demand, and Ammoniacal Nitrogen: A Case Study for Water Quality Assessment in the Perai River Basin, Malaysia

Water shortage has been an issue for urbanized areas. For the Penang state in Malaysia, it is forecast that there will be a significant increase in water demand in the future. Penang authorities in Malaysia are trying to find an alternative water source to overcome the problem, with one of the options being the Perai River catchment. However, the river water quality was found to be polluted and not suitable to be used for water extraction for domestic consumption. This paper aims to study the pollution level variation due to changes in rainfall during the year in the Perai River Basin, and estimate the TMDL of the river in a particular case for BOD, COD, and NH3N parameters. A water quality model was developed for the Perai River, Jarak River and Kulim River using InfoWorks ICM. The year 2016 was selected as a model event due to data availability. BOD, COD and NH3N concentrations were used for TMDL calculation, and the load duration curve approach was used to estimate TMDL. The tidal effect at the downstream of the Perai River was found to impact the data analysis in the river stretch. It was found that pollutant load exceedance was the highest during the rainy season and the problematic pollutant was NH3N. Thus, local authorities need to focus on tidal and seasonal change factors when developing action plans to manage water quality issues in this basin.

Evaluation of perennial reference evapotranspiration (ETo) over a typical dryland using satellite images: A case study from Uzbekistan

Evapotranspiration (ET) is one of the most significant compartments in the energy and water balance between the atmosphere and the Earth's surface. Global climate change has an impact on the water cycle and can result in an increase in ET from the land surface; nevertheless, an increase in ET can destabilize the macro- and micro-climate at the local and continental levels. In line with this, the purpose of this article is to learn more about the factors that contribute to the high and current reference ET (ETo) rate of Karakalpakstan (Uzbekistan). MODIS Terra images was used to analyze long-term land cover change. The Google Earth Engine code editor, Erdas Imagine 2020, and ArcMap 10.8 were used to map land cover change and the leaf area index (LAI). Though the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index and the Soil-Adjusted Vegetation Index were used because of their past performance as affirmative measurement techniques for vegetation monitoring. The Hargreaves-Samani equation was utilized to ETo in this study. Increased crop density in agriculture and the conversion of barren soil to grasslands to rehabilitate the seashore ecosystem of the Aral Sea influenced LAI significantly, according to multifactorial analyses of perennial air temperature, land cover change, solar irradiance, and ETo in a typical dryland of Uzbekistan. However, the extension of LAI in the agricultural area of Karakalpakstan substantially accelerated the ETo rate, which was a key contributor of an increase in crop water demand. We can see that measured solar radiation and ETo were consistent across time by looking at the nearly same quantities for both. As a result, we assume that global climatic changes have no effect in the uncertainty of solar radiation and ET rate.

Need to adopt scaled decentralized systems in the water infrastructure to achieve sustainability and build resilience

Abstract Urban water infrastructure (UWI) in cities faces enormous pressure to cope with increased water demands, handle extreme events and improve the service with minimum resource consumption and environmental impacts. The current study presents an approach for addressing the challenges in UWI, specifically in water supply and sewerage. The article argues a need for a paradigm shift that simultaneously includes the sustainability and resilience aspects throughout the life cycle of UWI. The article further highlights the issues in the prevailing approach of centralized infrastructure and demonstrates the necessity of moving away from such an approach and shifting towards decentralized infrastructure. Understanding the factors accelerating decentralization to attain a paradigm shift to decentralization is necessary. Hence, the study first identifies the drivers of decentralization. Secondly, the need for an appropriate scale to be considered while implementing decentralized UWI is highlighted in this study. Furthermore, the effect of the scale of infrastructure is discussed through the trade-offs between life-cycle costs, ease of governance, resilience and recycling benefits. The approach of scaled decentralization outlined in the study will be useful for developing countries to plan new infrastructure and also for developed countries to replace the ageing UWI to create future sustainable and resilient urban systems

Optimal Allocation of Water Resources Based on GWAS Model in Handan, China

Optimal allocation of water resources is an effective way to solve the supply and demand contradiction between water resources and water users. Recently, the rapid economic and social development of Handan has significantly increased water demand in various industries. Superimposed on the reduction of incoming water in upstream rivers and the limitation of the total amount of groundwater extraction, a large number of water sources such as South-to-North Water Diversion, Yellow River Water Diversion, and Weihe River Water Diversion are used to replace domestic and industrial water. In support of Handan’s dynamic supply and demand of water resources, the transported water was generalized as a virtual reservoir and introduced into the GWAS model. The allocation results show that the total water shortage volume and rate of Handan was 527.60 × 106 m3 and 17.92% in 2025 at a P = 50%, respectively. Water shortage was concentrated in the primary industry. The allocation results align with actual water use conditions. The allocation of transported water is more reasonable than the conventional allocation scheme, and the domestic water is completely replaced by the South-to-North Water Diversion in the eastern plain of Handan. These research results can provide a technical reference for water resource allocation in Handan.

Tracing water use by sectors in Morocco: An input–output modeling approach

AbstractIn recent decades, Morocco has experienced a strong and rapid increase in water demand due to many challenges such as population growth, urbanization sprawl, and economic development. Besides, climate change and its negative impact on natural water resources availability have put the supply–demand balance in jeopardy. This imperative has created a priority need to analyze the demand structure and identify how economic sector linkages mitigate or exacerbate water shortage. In this paper, a methodological framework based on an input–output model has been proposed to capture not only sectors with a large drag effect on water consumption of the whole economy but also the propagation of water use from both diffusion and absorption effects. The results show that the responsibility for water stress is attributed to different sectors and depends on the exogenous final demand shocks. This highlights the significance of consumers' decisions in the determination of ecological impact assessment.

Dharan Water Supply System - Alarming Issues and Future

This study examines the critical issue of water scarcity in the Dharan Sub-metropolitan city, analyzing the various factors that are driving factors driving water demand and proposing strategies and ensuring water security. This study finds that factors replace with the rapid expansion of residential areas, increasing population, steeper slopes, changing lifestyles, natural hazards, technical and management leakage are major contributors to the growing water shortages in the area, leading to a situation of water instability. However, the study also identifies that factor such as precipitation, geology, soil types, potential water sources in the area offer opportunities for stabilizing the water supply in Dharan Sub-metropolitan. This study highlights the combined effect of these various active factors that led to an increase in per capita demand of water from 71 to 100 lpcd. This increasing water demand and shrinking of surface water led to Interrupted Water pumping and overexploitation. Additionally, the study indicates that due to high level of Non-Revenue Water (NRW) up-to 40%, certain parts of the city’s residents are facing major difficulties in accessing clean drinking water. The study also finds that positive changes in precipitation, supportive soil types and geology in the city of Dharan increases the potential for water recharge and harvesting. In order to achieve a sustainable and climate-resilient water supply, the study recommends implementing Water management tools likewise protective measures for critical water zones, stabilizing stream banks and gullies for surface water source improvement, artificial recharge of the city through Climate Adaptive Recharge Pits (CARP) and slope interception methods, as well as community-based water harvesting for groundwater source improvement. Furthermore, the study suggests establishing R&D unit involving national and local level experts and stakeholders for better planning and management.

Review of water treatment methods with a focus on energy consumption

Water and energy are substantial mediums which allow to gain comfort and civilization development. Recently, humanity is facing a water scarcity problem as well as an energy crisis. Those factors forced to looking for alternative water sources and low energy solutions. In this paper water treatment technologies methods were described. Energy demand and cost of particular methods were analyzed. It was shown that conventional methods like coagulation and sedimentation are characterized by quite low energy demand. Whereas more advanced membrane techniques consumed much more energy. On the other hand they were able to obtain high removal efficiencies. It was noted that the most energy-intensive stage during water treatment was pumping. Whereas energy for performing purification stated only about a few percent of total energy demand. One of the newest approaches in water treatment is using renewable energy sources like wind, solar radiation or geothermal energy. It allows to decrease water treatment costs as well as reduces greenhouse gasses emission (expressed as carbon footprint). During designing water treatment plants water increase in water and energy demand supposed to be considered.

Analysis of the possibility of energy self-sufficiency of water pumping stations with the use of PV installations

The research aimed to check the possibility of achieving energy self-sufficiency in the water pumping station by implementing a photovoltaic installation. The research included field tests of pressure and flow in the water supply network along with hydrant tests, measurements of the pumping station's demand for electricity related to pumping water, and the amount of electricity produced from the tested PV installation. The collected data was used to develop a mathematical model of the water supply network, its calibration, and the implementation of water supply network development scenarios, including an increase in water demand. Work simulations of various variants of PV installation power were performed: 12.3 kW, 15.0 kW, 30.0 kW, and 40.0 kW. Tests and simulations have shown that in the tested facility it will not be possible to achieve energy self-sufficiency of the water pumping station of the PV micro-installation (i.e. up to 40.0 kW) throughout the year. Depending on the power of the PV installation, the pumping station will achieve self-sufficiency with the current water demand from 6 to 7 months, and in the scenarios of expanding the water supply network, it will achieve energy self-sufficiency from 4 to 7 months.

Framework for Assessing Collective Irrigation Systems Resilience to Climate Change—The Maiorga Case Study

In order to increase water productivity at the Collective Irrigation System (CIS) level it is crucial to adapt the existing irrigation infrastructure, enhancing water intake at the source, as well as its transport and delivery efficiency. Rehabilitation may involve structural changes and thus, a large capital investment. This investment should be proportionate to the increase in climate resilience associated to different rehabilitation alternatives. A methodology framework was developed to evaluate CIS resilience to climate change considering different rehabilitation alternatives. The assessed components were: (i) crop production systems; (ii) on-farm irrigation systems; and (iii) project rehabilitation alternatives for the conveyance and distribution of the irrigation water from the source to the farmer fields. This framework was applied to the Maiorga CIS, in central Portugal, to test the methodology performance in assessing the impacts of climate change on the supply-demand balance of the proposed rehabilitation alternatives and to evaluate their climate resilience, for the representative concentration pathways, RCP4.5 and RCP8.5, and two time periods, 2041–2070 and 2071–2100. For each scenario, period, and rehabilitation alternative, irrigation requirements at the source (demand) and stream flows (supply) were computed and the supply-demand balance was performed. Projected increases in irrigation water demand varied between 5.5% for RCP4.5/2071–2100 and 35.7% for RCP8.5/2071–2100. For RCP4.5, 11% (2050) and 9% (2080) reductions in irrigation water supply were projected, while for RCP8.5 the reduction ranges between 13% (2050) and 30% (2080). The proposed framework determined that the rehabilitation alternatives considering just one type of water source, without flow regularization and with open channel distribution to the farmer’s field, have proved to be unviable due to low resilience to climate change.

Modeling impacts of projected land use and climate changes on the water balance in the Baro basin, Ethiopia

In terms of land use and climate, the world is changing at an unprecedented rate and these changes have a significant influence on our water resources. This study was conducted to examine the individual and combined potential impacts of land use and climate change on the water balance of the Baro basin in Ethiopia for the baseline period (1985–2002) and near-future period (2023–2040) using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT). The plausible land use scenarios considering current (CUR), business as usual (BAU), and further expansion of altitudinal forest and watershed management practices (CON), as well as climate change scenarios from regional climate model outputs (RCMs) under two representative concentration pathways (RCP4.5 and RCP8.5) for the 2023–2040 time frame, were used as inputs to the models. The monthly calibrated and validated SWAT model produced an acceptable result, which was then used for water balance simulations. Findings show that forest decreased from 54.5% to 48.9% and 41.2% while agricultural land increased from 21.8% to 29.7% and 39.8% under the CUR and BAU land use change scenarios, respectively. The results from the ensemble mean showed an increase in maximum and minimum temperatures and a decrease in rainfall under the RCP4.5 and RCP8.5 climate change scenarios, which in turn resulted in an increase in evapotranspiration (ET) and a decrease in water availability. Climate change outweighed the impact of land-use change, thus indicating an increase in annual ET by up to 12% and a decrease of 42% in surface runoff (SURQ) under the RCP8.5 scenario. The BAU land use scenario projection triggers a respective increase of 18% in annual SURQ and reduction of ET by 2%. However, under the CON land use scenario, SURQ decreased by 24%. The study concluded that future land use and climate change will further challenge the basin's water supply capacity to meet the increased water demand. Understanding the changes in the basin's water balance is critical for mitigation and adaptation options. As a result, this study proposes restoration efforts and climate-resilient water management strategies that can increase the resilience of the river basin.

Water-energy-carbon emissions nexus analysis of crop production in the Tarim river basin, Northwest China

The water-energy-carbon emissions (WEC) nexus plays an important role in the sustainable production of crops. Changes to cropping patterns, along with an increase in water and energy demand and rising pressure to reduce carbon emissions, are severely challenging the WEC nexus in the Tarim River Basin (TRB). This study establishes the WEC nexus framework in crop production by analyzing spatio-temporal variations in key indicator trends using the footprint and nexus approach. The study also evaluates the coupling coordination development level of the WEC system based on the coupling coordination degree model. The results reveal the following: (1) The TRB is dominated by blue water irrigation resources, which account for 90% of total water consumption (AWC). There was an overall trend of increasing energy inputs per hectare for major crops in the TRB during 1990–2019. In particular, the energy input per hectare in Bayingol increased significantly and reached the highest level in 2016, at 4.39 × 104 MJ ha−1. Meanwhile, carbon footprint (CF) exhibited obvious spatial differences at the basin scale. Kizilsu Kirghiz had the lowest average CF, at 0.79 kg CO2_eq·kg−1. (2) The coupling degree of the WEC system in the study area is greater than 0.8, maintaining high-level coupling. The coupling coordination degree of Kizilsu Kirghiz had a clear upward trend and was stable at high levels during 2009–2019. (3) Cropping patterns are an important factor affecting the coupling coordination development of the WEC system. Strengthening connections among various sectors and improving energy utilization efficiency are critical actions to promote the low-carbon transition of crop production. This study provides the latest reference for realizing the coordinated development of the WEC system in the TRB.

Modeling and Forecasting of nanoFeCu Treated Sewage Quality Using Recurrent Neural Network (RNN)

Rapid industrialization and population growth cause severe water pollution and increased water demand. The use of FeCu nanoparticles (nanoFeCu) in treating sewage has been proven to be a space-efficient method. The objective of this work is to develop a recurrent neural network (RNN) model to estimate the performance of immobilized nanoFeCu in sewage treatment, thereby easing the monitoring and forecasting of sewage quality. In this work, sewage data was collected from a local sewage treatment plant. pH, nitrate, nitrite, and ammonia were used as the inputs. One-to-one and three-to-three RNN architectures were developed, optimized, and analyzed. The result showed that the one-to-one model predicted all four inputs with good accuracy, where R2 was found within a range of 0.87 to 0.98. However, the stability of the one-to-one model was not as good as the three-to-three model, as the inputs were chemically and statistically correlated in the later model. The best three-to-three model was developed by a single layer with 10 neurons and an average R2 of 0.91. In conclusion, this research provides data support for designing the neural network prediction model for sewage and provides positive significance for the exploration of smart sewage treatment plants.

Collective dynamics analysis based on the multiplex network method to unravel the backbone of fluctuations in groundwater level data

Collective behavior of groundwater level (GWL) in the Tabriz plain, northwest Iran, was modeled in the framework of complex networks. The GWL is considerably influenced by the lack of recharge due to drought in recent years and the increasing water demand of the industrial city of Tabriz. In this order, convergent cross-mapping (CCM) method was utilized to infer the causal relations by adopting a robust statistical approach based on hypothesis testing. Reconstructing structure is a challenge in network-based approaches to capture the dynamical variability of the measurements.This study aims to construct functional connectivity for a better understanding of informational flows among the wells. Multiplex network (MUX) was used as a set of coupled networks through interconnected layers to structure the information obtained from collective dynamics and time-reversal. The proposed procedure was evaluated by performing a systematic analysis of random network (RN) as a well-known model to consider the topological characteristics. The influence of connectivity reconstruction on network topology was also investigated by the generated experiments for different numbers of the dynamical units and lengths of the simulations at each unit. The MUX was constructed from the GWL for monthly observations over 15 years (2001–2017). Afterwards, the time-series was divided into three categories to infer the network connections in different time periods for various sets of the monitoring wells.The analysis indicates that unphysical connections are reduced by increasing the number of the coupling units as a desirable feature for detecting the underlying connectivity. The MUX is employed with the proposed statistical approach to quantitatively unravel the backbone of fluctuations in the GWL whose indirect causal relations form the skeleton. The MUX dynamics efficiently determines the underlying processes and identifies spatio-temporal patterns of the GWL fluctuations in two layers of the constructed networks.

Recent innovation and impacts of nano-based technologies for wastewater treatment on humans: a review

Sustainable wastewater management requires environment-friendly, efficient, and cost-effective methods of water treatment. The ever-growing list of emerging contaminants in municipal wastewater requires advanced, efficient, and cost-effective techniques for its treatment to combat the increasing water demand. The nano-based technologies hold great potential in improving water treatment efficiency and augmenting the water supply. However, the environmental effects of these technologies are still questionable among the public and scientific community. The present review discusses risks to human health due to the use of nano-based technology for the removal of emerging contaminants in water. The discussion will be about the impacts of these technologies on humans. Recommendations about safe and environmentally friendly options for nano-based technology for water treatment have been included. Safest options of nano-based technologies for water treatment and steps to minimize the risk associated with them have also been incorporated in this article. Since all biological systems are different, separate risk analyses should be performed at the environmentally relevant concentration for different durations. There is little/no information on the quantitative impact on humans and requires more understanding. The quantitative measurement of the cellular uptake of nanoparticles is usually difficult. We hope this article will serve its purpose for water researchers, medical researchers, environmentalists, policymakers, and the government.

Determination of Environmental Flows in Data-Poor Estuaries—Wami River Estuary in Saadani National Park, Tanzania

Land use changes and mounting water demands reduce freshwater inflows into estuaries, impairing estuarine ecosystems and accelerating coastal seawater intrusion. However, determining minimum river inflows for management guidelines is hampered by a lack of ecosystem-flow link data. This study describes the development of freshwater inflow guidelines for the Wami Estuary, combining scarce river flow data, hydrological modeling, inferring natural salinity regime from vegetation zonation and investigating freshwater requirements of people/wildlife. By adopting the Building Blocks Methodology, a detailed Environmental Flows Assessment was performed to know the minimum water depth/quality seasonal requirements for vegetation, terrestrial/aquatic wildlife and human communities. Water depth requirements were assessed for drought and normal rainfall years; corresponding discharges were obtained by a hydrological model (HEC-RAS) developed for the river channel upstream of estuary. Recommended flows were well within historically occurring flows. However, given the rapidly increasing water demand coupled with reduction in basin water storage due to deforestation/wetland loss, it is critical to ensure these minimum flows are present, without which essential ecosystem services (fisheries, water quality, mangrove forest resources and wildlife/tourism) will be jeopardized. The EFA process is described in painstaking detail to provide a reference for undertaking similar studies in data-poor regions worldwide.

Controls and rates of evaporation from a water supply reservoir in the Colorado Front Range

Evaporation can be a major component of a reservoir’s water balance in arid, populated regions such as the western United States, yet accurate measurements are scarce. In an effort to fill this observation gap, direct measurements of evaporation from Standley Lake, a water supply reservoir in the Colorado Front Range, were collected via the eddy covariance method from March 1, 2020 through February 28, 2021. Evaporation followed a seasonal pattern, with the spring, summer, and early fall experiencing daily cycles that peaked just after midday, with measurable evaporation occurring each day for approximately 4–6 h. In the late fall and winter, the daily cycles decayed and episodic enhancements in evaporation were common, most often lasting between 18 and 36 h, some longer. Evaporation peaked in June, aligning with peak net radiation, and summertime evaporation was predominantly driven by diurnal variations in wind speed and the vapor pressure gradient. Interestingly, fall and winter saw multiple periods of negative (downward) sensible heat transfer which helped drive wintertime evaporation. The study period evaporation totaled 1377 mm, with 35 % of that occurring in summer, 27 % in fall, 21 % in spring, and 17 % in winter. This study shows that evaporation is a significant part of the energy balance of Standley Lake, and with continued observations, enables a better understanding of the impacts a changing climate and increased water demands have on water resources.