Increase In Female Representation Research Articles

Increasing Gender Diversity in Corporate Boards: Are Firms Catering to Investor Preferences?

We examine the drivers of increasing women’s representation on boards in American firms. During 1998-2014, the proportion of firms with female directors on their boards almost doubled to approximately 78%, while the percentage of female directors increased almost five-fold to a share of 15%. Our analysis shows that the documented increase in female representation on corporate boards is driven by the increasing propensity of firms to add more female directors, rather than changing firms’ characteristics. We use the catering theory to explain firms’ propensity to increase (or decrease) their board gender diversity, and show that when the premium to have women on board is positive (negative), firms are more likely to add (replace) female directors. We further find that firms with more women on their boards are historically associated with higher valuation premium. Finally, we observe that the magnitude of board gender diversity changes is positively related to the change in the lagged gender diversity premium. Our results indicate that board gender diversity can increase value in firms, catering to the demand of investors for gender-diversified boards.

Gender Differences in Publication Productivity, Academic Rank, and Career Duration Among U.S. Academic Gastroenterology Faculty.

Female representation in academic medicine is increasing without proportional increases in female representation at senior ranks. The purpose of this study is to describe the gender representation in academic gastroenterology (GI) and compare publication productivity, academic rank, and career duration between male and female gastroenterologists. In 2014, the authors collected data including number of publications, career duration, h-index, and m-index for faculty members at 114 U.S. academic GI programs. Of 2,440 academic faculty, 1,859 (76%) were men and 581 (24%) were women. Half (50%) of men held senior faculty position compared with 29% of women (P < .001). Compared with female faculty, male faculty had significantly (P < .001) longer careers (20 vs. 11 years), more publications (median 24 [0-949] vs. 9 [0-438]), and higher h-indices (8 vs. 4). Higher h-index correlated with higher academic rank (P < .001). The authors detected no difference in the h-index between men and women at the same rank for professor, associate professor, and instructor, nor any difference in the m-index between men and women (0.5 vs. 0.46, respectively, P = .214). A gender gap exists in the number and proportion of women in academic GI; however, after correcting for career duration, productivity measures that consider quantity and impact are similar for male and female faculty. Women holding senior faculty positions are equally productive as their male counterparts. Early and continued career mentorship will likely lead to continued increases in the rise of women in academic rank.

Reporting requirements, targets, and quotas for women in leadership

Reporting requirements, targets, and quotas have been implemented in several countries to increase female representation in leadership. In three studies, we analyze the effectiveness of these strategies from a goal-setting perspective. Study 1 evaluates the relationship between reporting requirements and female representation on boards of directors with data from Fortune 500 companies from 1996 to 2015. Study 2 analyzes the association of reporting requirements, targets, and quotas with the representation of women on boards of directors of public companies across 91 countries. Study 3 evaluates the impact of targets and quotas for women in parliaments across 190 nations. The board diversity reporting directive introduced in the US was followed by an acceleration in the increase of female representation on boards of directors of Fortune 500 companies. Higher goals for women on boards of directors were related to higher female representation. Similarly, higher gender goals and strong enforcement mechanisms in parliaments were related to higher female representation.

"Gender diversity, time to take it from the top? An integration of competing theories"

Organizational strategies to achieve gender diversity have focussed on bottom-up approaches such as mentoring or leadership training. However, women’s representation at senior organizational levels remains well below men’s. This study investigates the trickle-down effect where an increase in female representation at a senior organizational level is expected to result in an increase in female representation at a lower level of management. Competing theories from the psychology and management literatures, that support or oppose the prediction of a trickle-down effect, are presented. Integrating these theories, we hypothesize a curvilinear relationship between female representation at two levels. Data for 1,387 organizations listed on the Australian Securities Exchange were collected for the period 2003-2012. Female representation at a senior organizational level (board) had a positive impact on subsequent female representation at a lower level of management (executive). A curvilinear relationship was found, with a weaker effect at low levels of female board representation, but only in organizations with no female executives. The trickle-down effect was strongest after one year, but still significant after five years. This evidence for the trickle-down effect suggests that organizations should consider multiple appointments of women to senior roles as a top-down strategy for increasing organizational gender diversity.

The Power of Political Voice: Women's Political Representation and Crime in India

Using state-level variation in the timing of political reforms, we find that an increase in female representation in local government induces a large and significant rise in documented crimes against women in India. Our evidence suggests that this increase is good news, driven primarily by greater reporting rather than greater incidence of such crimes. In contrast, we find no increase in crimes against men or in gender-neutral crimes. We also examine the effectiveness of alternative forms of political representation. Large scale membership of women in local councils affects crime against them more than their presence in higher-level leadership positions. (JEL D72, J16, K42, O15, O17)

Leadership In The Fortune 500: Women At The Executive Level Of Corporate Management

This study examines the influence of executive women in business using a sample of firms included in the Fortune 500. Our analysis looks at the movement of female executives on or off corporate management to determine whether an increase of female representation at the highest levels of corporate management signals an increased commitment of a firm to a higher representation of females on their boards of directors. Our sample includes a group of 73 corporations for which we longitudinally examined the data for women at the director and executive manager levels for the period from 1999 through 2003. Our data indicate that, while the number of firms having multiple female directors increased over this period, the increase was even more pronounced for women at the executive management level. Our data also indicate that, while the number of executive level managers was relatively stable (increased) between 1999 and 2001 (2001 and 2003), the number of women at this level increased by 25.5 (27.1) percent.

The Power of Political Voice: Women’s Political Representation and Crime in India

Using state-level variation in the timing of political reforms, we find that an increase in female representation in local government induces a large and significant rise in documented crimes against women in India. Our evidence suggests that this increase is good news, driven primarily by greater reporting rather than greater incidence of such crimes. In contrast, we find no increase in crimes against men or gender-neutral crimes. We also examine the effectiveness of alternative forms of political representation: large scale membership of women in local councils affects crime against them more than their presence in higher level leadership positions.

Women’s Participation In Local Governance In Ghana The Case of the Nadowli District of the Upper West Region

The issue of women’s participation in all spheres of life has become a major developmental concern world-wide. Many debates on the above issue have highlighted women’s marginalization in all aspects of social, economic and political life. The paper discusses the extent of women’s participation in the governance process at the local level in the Nadowli District of Ghana. The fieldwork was conducted on factors impinging on the level of women’s participation, impact of female representatives in the District Assembly and mechanisms for ensuring their active participation. A two-tier multi-stage sampling procedure involving simple random and purposive techniques was used to select area councils, communities, assemblypersons and community members as respondents. Key informant interviews with some heads of relevant decentralized agencies in the District were also carried out. The fieldwork revealed that, despite a marginal increase in female representation in the assembly, their numbers were still very low for the period 1988 to 2006. However, in spite of their low numerical strength; the study indicated that female representatives in the assembly have exhibited a positive impact on the development of their communities. The study also identified factors that relegate women to subordinate roles. Hence, measures have been suggested to enhance active involvement of women in the governance processes at the local level.

Women in South Korean Politics: A Long Road to Equality

This paper examines the reasons for the increase in female representation in South Korean politics in the early 21st century. It is not a direct outcome of Korea’s democratisation process but a result of attitudinal change as well as the efforts of women’s organisations. The Korean experience shows that female representation in parliaments is not the only way to influence politics and policies on women’s issues. This paper starts with a general discussion of democratic procedures that influence female representation before looking at their application in South Korea. Coinciding with procedural changes, societal transformation paved the way for the advancement of women in the public sphere. Women’s organisations play an important role in promoting gender equality and women’s policies, especially since the late 1990s after they started to engage with the state. Their efforts included the introduction of quotas that allowed more women to enter formal elective politics, more than doubling the number of successful women in the 2004 parliamentary elections. Further steps are needed, however, to ensure sustainable and irreversible progress.

Is Liberal Feminism Working in the NCAA?

This study sought to describe the degree of success of a basic tenet of liberal feminism in providing equal opportunity as defined by female representation in the NCAA. The study showed how the NCAA is reflective of an association that is an instrument of domination. The purpose of the study was to determine the number of women holding leadership positions at the campus level in NCAA labeled functions. These data were compared with similar 1987-88 data. In addition, male and female representatives at the national level on committees and councils were compared to similar data collected in 1987-88. A gender comparison was made with the 1992-93 data involving NCAA national committees. The data revealed that there were significantly more males than females on NCAA national committees in 1992-93. The results of χ2 tests between years and female representation revealed no significant increase in female representation between 1987 and 1993; however, there was an increase in female representation beyond the mandated percentage required by NCAA bylaws.

The 1992 Census of AEJMC: A Report to the Membership

While AEJMC has been in existence for more than eight decades, there has never been an attempt to systematically describe the membership and its characteristics. The need to gather some baseline data to describe the membership in terms of its demographic and cultural diversity became apparent when AEJMC revised its constitution in 1990. To reflect its commitment to diversity, a statement was incorporated in the constitution providing that AEJMC monitor the status of women and minorities on a regular basis, report its findings to the membership, and take affirmative steps to rectify problems.A recommendation to address this mandate was brought to the Executive Committee by the Commission on the Status of Women and endorsed by the Commission on the Status of Minorities in 1991. It proposed the idea for a survey to monitor the status of women and minorities in the Association. Following approval to act on this recommendation, Terry Hynes, president from 1991-92, in one of her presidential statements to the members, wrote:AEJMC grew by 60 percent in the past decade, from approximately 1,700 to 2,700 members. So, who are we in 1991? Where do we live? What kinds of educational institutions do we work in? What ranks do we hold in those institutions? What degrees do we have? What age are we? What is our ethnic and racial profile? How many men and women belong to AEJMC? Who, if you will, is the 'typical' AEJMC member?To answer some of these questions, we were asked in late 1991 by AEJMC to conduct a survey of its membership. Some of the major descriptive findings of the project are contained in this report. Explanatory tables begin on page 103.MethodA seven-page, 101-question survey was mailed to all 1,967 active members in spring 1992.(1) We asked questions on a range of topics related to the member's backgrounds, qualifications, teaching, research and service workloads, salary, perceptions of the work environment, and personal experiences of discrimination.(2) Students and retired members were not included. Persons who did not respond within several weeks received one postcard follow-up. In all, 1,160 responded, a response rate of 59 percent.ResultsFor this report we will try to describe the general demographic and social characteristics of the membership, along with selected other information such as type of institution, scholarly productivity and decade of entry into the field. We will take up each of these areas.Gender. Seventy-two percent of the respondents were male and 28 percent female. This represents an increase in female representation from earlier studies. For example, Rush, Oukrop and Ernst (3) found that 7 to B percent of the faculty in 1972 were women. Sharp, et al.(4) reported that by 1983 that proportion had increased to 17 to 19 percent. This represents significant progress in the representation of women, but it is far from acceptable in terms of the overall representation. It is important to note that the pool of available female PhD candidates is increasing, and is now close to parity with male.Ethnic composition. Ninety-two percent of the respondents were white. The rest were 3 percent African-Americans, 2.8 percent Asian-Americans, 0.1 percent Native Americans and 0.8 percent Hispanics, who could be of any race. An additional 1.3 percent identified themselves as other.Because of the absence of benchmark data, we are unable to report whether this represents progress or the lack of it. But by any reasonable expectation, however, our data show a remarkable under representation of minorities in the field, compared to the society at large.One way to gain perspective on the issues of gender and minority representation is to examine our static data by noting when the present membership entered teaching. By using date of entry as an indicator, we introduced a dynamic component into our analysis to examine how recently women and minorities have come into the field. …

CHANGE IN FIELD OF STUDY FROM UNDERGRADUATE TO GRADUATE SCHOOL: CREATION OF A GRE DATA BASE FOR STUDYING TALENT FLOW

In recent years the Graduate Record Examinations (GRE) files have become recognized as a valuable source for studies of talent flow. When test takers register to take the GRE, they complete a background questionnaire that asks, among other things, their undergraduate major field and their intended field of graduate study. With this information, along with subsequent test scores, grades, parents' education, age, gender, ethnic group, citizenship, and other variables, we are able to examine patterns that relate major field choices, and changes in those choices, to background data and academic ability. Studies using the GRE files had been costly because of the length and complexity of the files and because of the careful and tedious programming that has had to be done to accommodate the coding changes that took place as the questionnaire was revised over the years. If we were to conduct further talent flow studies using the GRE data, it became clear that we needed a data base designed especially for that purpose. In this project we designed a special GRE talent flow data base from 1978 to 1987 having three different structures. The first is an individual examinee file in which one record exists for each test taker. The record is short and identically formatted from year to year. The second structure is a matrix in which rows correspond to intended graduate fields of study and columns correspond to undergraduate majors. One hundred major fields are arranged in a rational order. Contained within the cells of the matrices are statistics such as numbers of test takers, mean GRE verbal score, percentage planning to earn a doctorate, numbers of minorities, and so forth. The third matrix structure collapses the 100 specific fields into 10 general fields. All three data bases are on computer files for public use; the matrices are available in hard copy as well. During the project, we demonstrated some uses of the data base and devoted considerable effort to the design of graphic representations that could clearly express various aspects of talent flow. Some of the findings from our examples (on U.S. citizens only) were as follows: • Engineering, physical sciences, and mathematics showed steady growth as graduate fields of study, whereas all other broad fields showed declines through about 1984 and then increases. • The common belief that as numbers entering a field decline, student quality rises, and as numbers rise, quality declines, was not supported. • The percentage of examinees over age 30 increased from 15% to 28%; the greatest percentage were in the service professions. • The percentage of female test takers grew only slightly; physical sciences and engineering showed very little increase in female representation. • Consistent with the decline in doctorates earned by Black students was the number of Black test takers, which also declined. • Among test takers with degrees in humanities, and physical, biological, and social sciences, a higher percentage of women than men changed fields for graduate work. Among those in health sciences, education, and business, men were more likely to change than were women. • Test takers appeared to choose graduate specialties consistent with their relative verbal and quantitative skills, as reflected in their GRE scores: low-scoring students in demanding undergraduate fields appeared to move to less demanding graduate fields, and high-scoring individuals in less demanding fields appeared to move to more demanding ones.

Changes in Occupational Segregation in Britain, 1971–1981

Although there have been significant increases in female representation in several previously male‐dominated occupations, when the occupational structure of the labour force as a whole is considered the changes in segregation have been only marginal. There has been some movement of females into predominantly male occupations, but little movement in the reverse direction. A comparison of the Great Britain Census of Population (using the Classification of Occupations 1970 system) for 1971 and 1981 shows that the overall pattern has changed little during the ten‐year period. Possibly the decade 1981–1991 will see greater changes as the impact of more recent legislation (including the Sexual Discrimination Act) has time to take effect.