Increase In Expenditure Research Articles

Nonfarm entrepreneurship, crop output, and household welfare in Tanzania: An exploration of transmission channels

AbstractThis study analyzes panel data from the Tanzania Living Standards Measurement Study‐Integrated Surveys on Agriculture by the World Bank to investigate the impact of nonfarm entrepreneurship as a nonfarm activity on the value of crop output and household welfare, and to explore the potential transmission channels among rural farm households. Using a dynamic panel model to address endogeneity, our results reveal that nonfarm entrepreneurship has a positive impact on the value of crop output and household welfare. Our findings suggest that income from nonfarm entrepreneurship may enhance crop output through crop production technology and credit access, and household welfare through an increase in consumption expenditure and food expenditure as potential transmission mechanisms. Policies that enhance nonfarm entrepreneurship may also reinforce crop production and the welfare of farm households and are thus imperative. We suggest that policies that boost nonfarm sector growth such as agro‐processing and agribusiness enterprise development might achieve the twin objectives simultaneously: enhancing crop production and household welfare [EconLit Citations: C33, D24, Q12, 012].

The Impact of General Government Final Consumption Expenditure- Economics Growth nexus for the Gambia

Traditional Keynesian macroeconomic approaches states that extraordinary levels of government consumption expenditure increase employment levels of the population, productivity and investment levels through investment multiplier effects on aggregate demand. Thus, the spending of the government increases also raises aggregate demand to the right, causing output to increase depending on the magnitude and efficiency of expenditure multipliers on growth. The focus of this paper is to examining the impact of general government final consumption expenditure- economic growth nexus for the Gambia for the periods from 1977 to 2017. The econometrics techniques used is Ordinary Least Square (OLS) method to explore the impacts either negative or positive effects of government consumption final expenditure on growth in the Gambia for the periods under study Data for the study were obtained from World Bank(WDI). The findings were interpreted based on a 5 percent significance level of alpha. The multiple regression result revealed that government consumption was not a significant impact on the economic growth of the Gambia. This opposes the traditional Keynesian macroeconomic theory. This study suggested that Capital and recurrent expenditures on economic facilities should be directed mainly to productive economics. This will stimulate activities in the economic sectors like agriculture, industry and services, that will perhaps contrary the undesirable effect of government expenditure on economic growth especially in the Gambia in which the time series study was based.

Secreted EMC10 is upregulated in human obesity and its neutralizing antibody prevents diet-induced obesity in mice

Secreted isoform of endoplasmic reticulum membrane complex subunit 10 (scEMC10) is a poorly characterized secreted protein of largely unknown physiological function. Here we demonstrate that scEMC10 is upregulated in people with obesity and is positively associated with insulin resistance. Consistent with a causal role for scEMC10 in obesity, Emc10-/- mice are resistant to diet-induced obesity due to an increase in energy expenditure, while scEMC10 overexpression decreases energy expenditure, thus promoting obesity in mouse. Furthermore, neutralization of circulating scEMC10 using a monoclonal antibody reduces body weight and enhances insulin sensitivity in obese mice. Mechanistically, we provide evidence that scEMC10 can be transported into cells where it binds to the catalytic subunit of PKA and inhibits its stimulatory action on CREB while ablation of EMC10 promotes thermogenesis in adipocytes via activation of the PKA signalling pathway and its downstream targets. Taken together, our data identify scEMC10 as a circulating inhibitor of thermogenesis and a potential therapeutic target for obesity and its cardiometabolic complications.

The relationship between health expenditure indicators and economic growth in OECD countries: A Driscoll-Kraay approach.

The main purpose of the study is to examine the relationship between health expenditure indicators and economic growth in OECD countries. In this context, health expenditures and economic indicators data of 21 OECD countries were analyzed by the Driscoll-Kraay standard error approach within the scope of panel data analysis. While Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and income per capita were used as dependent variables, the amount of out-of-pocket health spending, per capita health expenditure, the amount of public health expenditure, the ratio of drug expenditures to gross domestic product, the share of current health expenditures in GDP were used as independent variables. According to the results, in the model (Model 1) where real GDP level was used as the dependent variable, all health expenditure indicators were positively related to the economic growth. When the estimation results of Model 1 are examined, it is predicted that there will be an increase of 0.09% in GDP in case of a 1% increase in the share allocated to health services from GDP. In case of a 1% increase in the amount of out-of-pocket spending on healthcare, it is foreseen that there may be an increase of 0.04% in the real GDP. In the model (Model 2) where the per capita income variable is the dependent variable, it is seen that the increase in out- of-pocket health spending has a decreasing effect on the per capita income level, while the increase in public expenditures has an increasing effect on the per capita income level. From the findings of Model 2, it was found that if a 1% increase in the share of current health expenditures in GDP, there may be an increase of 0.06% in the amount of per capita income. Concludingly, it is possible to say that that public resources allocated to health services play an important role in the economic growth.

Does Retirement Reduce Household Food Consumption Expenditure in Cameroon?

The objective of this article is to investigate the effect of retirement on household food consumption expenditure in Cameroon. We use a fuzzy regression-discontinuity method to identify the effect of retirement on household food consumption expenditure. We estimate the retirement equation and instrumental equation with food consumption expenditure equations in a two-stage least squares (2SLS) framework. Our data come from the Fourth Household Survey (ECAM4) organized in Cameroon by the National Institute of Statistics (NIS) in 2014. The results confirm the existence of the retirement-consumption puzzle in the case of food expenditure and restaurant and hotel expenditure. Food expenditure falls in retirement by 55.6 percentage points and spending on restaurants and hotels falls by 65 percentage points, reflecting the precariousness of the pension system in Cameroon. In the case of beverage expenditure, on the contrary, we observe an increase in alcohol expenditure in retirement.

Cash shortfalls in IPO firms

We find that most IPO firms will run out of cash soon if they did not receive proceeds from IPOs. The cash shortfalls are not caused by increases in capital expenditure, R&D, M&A, or debt repayment and persist during the 5 years after IPO. Negative net cash flows help explain the persistent cash shortfalls. These results are consistent with the funding horizon theory. IPO firms with more initial cash shortfalls also have lower cash flows in the next 5 years, suggesting that initial cash shortfalls can be used to predict the future operating performance of IPO firms.

Assessing non-linear effects of government size on inflation in India: recent evidence from smooth transition autoregression model

PurposeStandard economic theory predicts that any increase in public spending is accompanied by a rise in inflation in an economy. This paper presents empirical proof that prices do not always rise with an increase in public expenditure but only up to a certain threshold level. The primary aim of this paper is to unearth the government size-inflation nexus in India for the period from 1971 to 2019.Design/methodology/approachThe logistic STAR (smooth transition autoregression) model is employed to unravel the government size-inflation nexus for the Indian economy from a non-linear perspective.FindingsThe finding of our study confirm the non-linear relationship between the size of the government and inflation in India. The estimated threshold level for government size is precisely found to be 9.27%. The size of the government exerts a negative influence on inflation until it reaches the optimal or threshold level. Any further increase in the size of government beyond this threshold level would result in a rise in inflation.Research limitations/implicationsThe findings have implications for the conduct of fiscal policy. Policymakers can increase government spending in a regime of small government size without having any inflationary impacts by generating revenues from taxes and other sources instead of relying much on the central bank. In the regime of a large-sized government, adhering strictly to the discipline in the conduct of fiscal and monetary policies would help curb inflation and enhance growth synchronously, hence alleviating any loss of welfare.Originality/valueTo the best of the authors’ knowledge, this study is an attempt to revisit the government size-inflation nexus in India from a non-linear perspective using the Smooth Transition Autoregression (STAR) model for the first time.

Expenditure and Utilization Patterns of Cancer Care in Kuwait

#Introduction Cancer is among the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. However. The trends in utilization of cancer services and related expenditures in Kuwait are poorly known. We aim to investigate the expenditure and utilization patterns of cancer care in Kuwait. Methods A three-year retrospective analysis study of expenditure and utilization pattern in KCCC was performed from 2015 to 2017 in MOH in Kuwait. Results We report a considerable variation of utilizations and expenditure levels over the three-year period. After adjusting the data, there was significant increase in utilization rates and expenditure in 2015-16 followed by significant decrease in year 2016-17. The expenditure was observed to increase by 1.1% in 2016 before it declined by 1.9% in 2017. Conclusions This study is the first of its kind in Kuwait. We report adequate utilization and expenditure of cancer care in Kuwait. However, we recommend heavy investments in precision medicine technology and patient outcomes research to improve overall financial and operational performance pertaining to cancer care in MOH in Kuwait.

Budget cap and pay-back model to control spending on medicines: A case study of Bulgaria.

Central and Eastern European countries (CEEC) have among the highest rates of increase in healthcare expenditure. External reference pricing, generics and biologics price capping, regressive scale for price setting, health technology assessment (HTA), and positive drug lists for reimbursed medicines are among the variety of implemented cost-containment measures aimed at reducing and controlling the rising cost for pharmaceuticals. The aim of our study was to analyze the influence of a recently introduced measure in Bulgaria-budget capping in terms of overall budget expenditure. A secondary goal was to analyze current and extrapolate future trends in the healthcare and pharmaceutical budget based on data from 2016 to 2021. The study is a retrospective, observational and prognostic, macroeconomic analysis of the National Health Insurance Fund's (NHIF) budget before (2016-2018) and after (2019-2021) the introduction of the new budget cap model. Subgroups analysis for each of the three new budget groups of medicines (group A: medicines for outpatient treatment, prescribed after approval by a committee of 3 specialists; group B: all other medicines out of group A; and group C: oncology and life-saving medicines out of group A) was also performed, and the data were extrapolated for the next 3 years. The Kruskal-Wallis test was applied to establish statistically significant differences between the groups. During 2016-2021, healthcare services and pharmaceutical spending increased permanently, observing a growth of 82 and 80%, respectively. The overall healthcare budget increased from European €1.8 billion to 3.3 billion. The subgroup analysis showed a similar trend for all three groups, with similar growth between them. The highest spending was observed in group C, which outpaced the others mainly due to the particular antineoplastic (chemotherapy) medicines included in it. The rising overall healthcare cost in Bulgaria (from European €1.8 billion to 3.3 billion) reveals that implementation of a mechanism for budget predictability and sustainability is needed. The introduced budget cap is a relatively effective measure, but the high level of overspending and pay-back amount (from European €34 billion to 59 billion during 2019-2021) reveals that the market environmental risk factors are not well foreseen and practically implemented.

Research on the Impact Mechanism of Fiscal and Tax Policies on Carbon Emissions under the Dual Carbon Goals

It is of great significance to study the impact mechanism of fiscal and tax policies on China's carbon emissions under the double-carbon target to promote China's green development. Based on the carbon emission panel data of 30 provinces in China except Tibet, Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan from 2010 to 2019, and based on the system GMM model, this paper analyzes the impact mechanism of fiscal and tax policies on China's carbon emissions. The research shows that there is an inverted U-shaped relationship between financial expenditure and carbon emissions, that is, with the increase of financial expenditure, carbon emissions show a trend of first rising and then declining. Tax revenue has the effect of restraining carbon emissions, but the effect is limited. Based on this, this paper puts forward suggestions on the improvement of fiscal and tax policies and the expansion of the implementation path from the perspective of "dual carbon".

The ongoing narrative of Ivory‐billed Woodpecker rediscovery and support for declaring the species extinct

The Ivory‐billed Woodpecker Campephilus principalis was considered extinct by many until, in 2005, researchers announced its rediscovery in continental North America and released video evidence obtained from the state of Arkansas. This claim garnered worldwide media attention and sparked renewed interest in searching for and conserving the bird. Audio recordings from the same region, including sounds closely resembling the territorial double raps of Campephilus woodpeckers, were also released. Both the video and audio evidence, however, were challenged in several journal articles, though these critiques did not receive as much attention. We estimated that over 578 000 h were collectively spent searching for the species across the southeastern USA from 2004 to 2021, but these efforts failed to yield indisputable proof of the species' persistence. More than US$ 20.3 million in federal and state government funding was spent on the bird from 2005 to 2013, a sharp increase in expenditures from the years before the rediscovery announcement. Regardless of whether or not it was a reallocation of funds from other taxa, this money, along with other associated resources (e.g. time and human effort), would have undoubtedly benefited other underfunded threatened and endangered taxa had it not been spent on the woodpecker. Given the published criticisms and counterevidence, as well as the lack of definitive proof that the species still exists, it appears that this endeavour was driven largely by the narrative of rediscovery advanced by prominent researchers in ornithology, rather than the actual evidence, and that this probably helped to perpetuate the use of poor‐quality evidence in subsequent claims of the species' persistence. In 2021, the US Fish and Wildlife Service proposed an extinction declaration for the Ivory‐billed Woodpecker. Based on available information, this decision seems logical, and would close this chapter on one of the biggest losses to North American avifauna in modern history.

Türkiye'de Kamu Harcamalarının Covıd-19 Salgını Sürecinde Seyri: Sıçrama Hipotezinin Geçerliliğinin Değerlendirilmesi

The Covid-19 pandemic has not only put public health at risk throughout the world, but it has also slowed down business operations of countries and brought the industry to a stop. This pandemic required government interference, as well as global measures by international organizations. As a result of the actions and measures implemented, the level of public expenditures has increased significantly. There are various approaches in theory to explain the increase in public expenditures. One of these approaches, the Peacock-Wiseman hypothesis, claims that public expenditure increases by leaps and bounds during extraordinary periods like crisis and war. In this context, the basis of the study is the evaluation of the relationship between the Covid-19 pandemic, which is an extraordinary period, and public expenditures. The aim of this study is to detect the jump levels in sub-components of public expenditures after classifying public expenditures in Turkey according to the Analytical Budget System's Economic Classification during the Covid-19 pandemic period. As a result of the studies on Turkey, when public expenditures during the Covid-19 pandemic are examined according to the economic classification, which is the sub-branch of the analytical budget classification, it was observed that personnel expenses, current transfers, capital expenses and liability component have jumped to a new level and when the relationship between these public expenditures and the pandemic period was examined, it was discovered to overlap with the Peacock-Wiseman hypothesis.

Rapid Detection of Uropathogens and Antibiotic-resistant Genes Using Open Array Multiplex PCR Technology

Abstract Introduction/Objective Introduction: Standard diagnostic practices for Urinary Tract Infection (UTI) take 2–3 days for pathogen identification and antibiotic susceptibility testing leading to delayed diagnosis and an increase in healthcare expenditures. The rapid diagnostics tool is highly desirable to identify the pathogen and its antibiotic-resistant genes directly from the samples. Our objective is to validate and evaluate the performance of Open array multiplex PCR for pathogen identification and antibiotic resistance genes. Methods/Case Report Method: Open array multiplex PCR method for 20 UTI pathogens was validated using ATCC organisms and inter-laboratory correlation using 50 urine samples. Briefly, samples were homogenized using Omni bead ruptor 96, and DNA was extracted using Hamilton Vantage. Customized open array and UTI chips with 20 most common urinary tract pathogen target and 13 resistant genes target specifically for UTI treatment were filled with Taqman open array PCR master mix and extracted DNA in a 1:1 ratio. UTI chips were prepared on Accufill and real-time PCR was performed on Quantstudio 12K flex. A total of 116 de-identified patient samples were analyzed. Results (if a Case Study enter NA) Result: The sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of this method were more than 90% considering the reference method as the standard method. A total of 14 different types of organisms were detected. Escherichia coli (n=49) was the highest among all. Multiple pathogens were identified in 27 urine samples. Organisms such as Ureaplasma and Megasphaera 1 were detected in nine and four samples, respectively. All positive samples were resistant to at least one or two resistant genes. tetM and tetS were resistant among 72 samples, erm A, B, and C in 60 samples, ESBL in 30 and fosfo A in 21 samples. Conclusion Conclusion: The open array multiplex PCR technology may help in the early diagnosis and treatment that can improve patient care, shorten hospitalization, and reduces the economic burden.

Techno-economic analysis of sidestream ammonia removal technologies: Biological options versus thermal stripping

Over the past twenty years, various commercial technologies have been deployed to remove ammonia (NH4–N) from anaerobic digestion (AD) liquors. In recent years many anaerobic digesters have been upgraded to include a pre-treatment, such as the thermal hydrolysis process (THP), to produce more biogas, increasing NH4–N concentrations in the liquors are costly to treat. This study provides a comparative techno-economic assessment of sidestream technologies to remove NH4–N from conventional AD and THP/AD dewatering liquors: a deammonification continuous stirred tank reactor (PNA), a nitrification/denitrification sequencing batch reactor (SBR) and thermal ammonia stripping process with an ammonia scrubber (STRIP). The SBR and PNA were based on full-scale data, whereas the STRIP was designed using a computational approach to achieve NH4–N removals of 90–95%. The PNA presented the lowest whole-life cost (WLC) over 40 years, with £7.7 M, while the STRIP had a WLC of £43.9 M. This study identified that THP dewatering liquors, and thus a higher ammonia load, can lead to a 1.5–3.0 times increase in operational expenditure with the PNA and the SBR. Furthermore, this study highlighted that deammonification is a capable and cost-effective nitrogen removal technology. Processes like the STRIP respond to current pressures faced by the water industry on ammonia recovery together with targets to reduce nitrous oxide emissions. Nevertheless, ammonia striping-based processes must further be demonstrated in WWTPs and WLC reduced to grant their wide implementation and replace existing technologies.

The Migration Influence on the Forecasting of Health Care Budget Expenditures in the Direction of Sustainability: Case of Ukraine

The start of the full-scale Russian-Ukrainian war caused the largest wave of migration in the 21st century. More than five million Ukrainian citizens left for EU countries within a few months of the start of the conflict. The purpose of this paper is to forecast the level of health care expenditure in Ukraine for 2023–2024, considering the scale of migration and the fall in the level of GDP. The authors propose three scenarios for the development of Ukraine’s economy in 2023–2024, taking into account changes in the age structure of the population, migration, and the amount of health care expenditure: (1) Pessimistic, in which economic growth will resume only in 2024, with a GDP rise of 5.6%, provided that the war concludes at the end of 2022. Under this scenario, inflation will be about 21% in 2023–2024, a slight decrease compared with the previous year. Some 12% of the population of Ukraine will have emigrated, resulting in a corresponding 12% drop in health care expenditure in 2023–2024. (2) Basic (realistic), in which economic growth will be about 5% in 2023–2024, inflation will be under 10%, and migration will have accounted for 5% of the country’s population. Under this scenario, there will be an increase in health care expenditure of more than 40% in 2023–2024. (3) Optimistic, according to which rapid economic growth is expected in 2023–2024, inflation will not exceed 7%, the majority of those who left Ukraine in the early months of the war will return, and health care expenditure will increase by more than 70% in 2023–2024. The methodology of forecasting public expenditure on health care has been based on a six-step cohort method. The results have indicated that the cost of updating the age structure of Ukraine’s population every year will decrease due to the aging of the population, and the overall impact of demographic processes will be negative. The impact of mass migration due to the war creates a significant change in health care costs, requiring administrative bodies to monitor the situation promptly and make appropriate changes to the structure of budget expenditure.

Impact of Election Expenditure on Agricultural Service Delivery Expenditure in Zambia, 2000-2021

Purpose: This paper examined the public expenditure changes between elections and agriculture service delivery. The aim was to determine how the relationship trend related to agriculture growth. Early analyses assumed that elections act as a signal for preferential public expenditure. Thus, in Zambia, agriculture would be a priority as the government claims over 70% of citizens, directly or indirectly earn from the sector.
 Methodology: Times series secondary data was analyzed for descriptive statistics from 2000 to 2021.
 Findings: The evidence is that agriculture public expenditure was lower than CAADP targets in this period. Agriculture research as a service received the lowest funding. The trend also revealed that there were very sharp increases in election expenditure in both the preceding year and in the year of elections. In most election years this was close to 2% of total national public spending over the study period. These election spending spikes may have induced cyclical fiscal shocks, difficult to recover from, resulting in limited fiscal space and a reduction in agriculture spending. The electoral cycle induced fiscal shocks, over time, may have also led to a downward trend in agriculture growth. The authors identify this phenomenon as the ‘functionality burden of democracy’.
 Recommendation: Based on the findings the study recommends that agreed policy objectives in agriculture and CAADP commitments must become a national mission. This would mean that the agriculture goals are shared at all levels including family, schools, private sector, civil society and the media.

Pseudo Panel Analysis of Waste Disposal and Household Health Expenditure in Ghana: The Role of Institutions

This study analyzed the effect of waste disposal on household health expenditure in Ghana by using Pseudo Panel technique to inform policy. It further analyzed the role institutions play in dealing with waste disposal and household health expenditure in Ghana. Numerous empirical studies have been carried out on waste disposal. However, these empirical studies did not focus on examining the effect of waste disposal on household health expenditure in Ghana. The study employs pseudo panel constructed from repeated cross sectional data from Ghana Living Standard Surveys (5, 6 &7) to achieve this objective. The System Generalized Method of Moments (GMM) is employed to estimate the model. Results from the study indicates that, improper solid waste disposal leads to the spread of diseases like malaria, cholera, diarrhoea, dengue and others. This leads to the increase in the health expenditure of these households. However, when solid waste disposal is interacted with institutions (Faith Based Organizations), it reduces household health expenditure. The study recommends that, government institutions should complement the efforts of these Faith Based Organizations (FBOs) to help achieve higher positive outcome. Keywords: Solid waste disposal, liquid waste disposal, household health expenditure, pseudo panel, institutions DOI: 10.7176/JRDM/89-04 Publication date: November 30 th 2022

Economic Effects of Fixed-Dose Versus Loose-Dose Combination Therapy for Type 2 Diabetes Patients.

We examined the effects of fixe-dose combinations (FDCs) versus loose-dose combinations (LDCs) on costs from the payer and patient perspective and investigated potential channels contributing to differences in costs between the two modes of treatment. We investigated administrative data from 2017 to 2020 on diabetes patients in Germany. After using prospensity-score matching to remove dissimilarities between FDC and LDC patients, we compared changes in costs with a difference-in-differences approach. We analyzed pharmaceutical costs, inpatient and outpatient costs, other costs and total healthcare costs from the payer perspective, and co-payments from the patient perspective. The sample comprised 1117 FDC and 1272 LDC patients. Regression analysis revealed that FDC therapy significantly increased antidiabetic pharmaceutical spending in the first year by 5.5% (p<0.01), but decreased co-payments by 33% (p<0.01) in the first and 44% (p<0.01) in the second year. We also observed a trend towards higher outpatient spending in the first year. No significant differences were found with respect to inpatient or other costs. The increase in antidiabetic pharmaceutical spending did not contribute to a significant increase in total healthcare expenditure. We identified a shift of co-payments to the payer and higher adherence as possible mechanisms behind the increase in antidiabetic pharmaceutical spending. Although FDC therapy increased disease-specific pharmaceutical spending in the short term, this increase did not lead to differences in total healthcare costs from the payer perspective. From the patient perspective, FDC therapy may be the preferred treatment approach, because of significant saving in co-payments, which is likely attributable to the elimination of one co-payment and therefore a shift in costs to the payer.

The association of multiple chronic conditions and healthcare expenditures among adults with epilepsy in the United States

RationaleEpilepsy is a frequent neurologic condition with important financial strains on the US healthcare system. The co-occurrence of multiple chronic conditions (MCC) may have additional financial repercussions on this patient population. We aimed to assess the association of coexisting chronic conditions on healthcare expenditures among adult patients with epilepsy. MethodsWe identified a total of 1,942,413 adults (≥18 years) with epilepsy using the clinical classification code 83 from the MEPS-HC (Medical Expenditure Panel Survey Household Component) database between 2003 and 2014. Chronic conditions were selected using the clinical classification system (ccs), and categorized into 0, 1, or 2 chronic conditions in addition to epilepsy. We computed unadjusted healthcare expenditures per year and per individual (total direct healthcare expenditure, inpatient expenditure, outpatient expenditure, prescription medication expenditure, emergency room visit expenditure, home healthcare expenditure and other) by number of chronic conditions. We applied a two-part model with probit (probability of zero vs non-zero cost) and generalized linear model (GLM) gamma family and log link (for cost greater than zero) to examine the independent association between chronic conditions, and annual expenditures per individual, generating incremental costs with 0 chronic condition as reference. ResultsOver half of the patients with epilepsy had at least two chronic conditions (CC). Yearly, for each patient with one and two chronic conditions, unadjusted total healthcare expenditures were two times ($10,202; 95 %CI $6,551–13,853) to nearly three times ($21,277; 95 %CI $12,971–25,583) higher than those with no chronic conditions ($6,177; 95 %CI $4,895–7,459), respectively. In general healthcare expenditures increased with the number of chronic conditions for pre-specified cost categories. The incremental (adjusted) total healthcare expenditure increased with the number of chronic conditions (1CC vs 0 CC: $3,238; 95 %CI $524–5,851 p-value = 0.015 and ≥2 CC vs 0 CC: $8,145; 95 %CI $5,935–10,895 p-value < 0.001). In general, for all cost categories, incremental healthcare expenditures increased with the number of chronic conditions with the largest increment noted between those with 2 CC and those with 0 CC for inpatient ($2,025: 95 %CI $867–3,1830), outpatient ($2,141; 95 %CI $1,321–2,962), and medication ($1,852; 95 %CI $1,393–2,310). ConclusionChronic conditions are frequent among adult patients with epilepsy and are associated with a dose–response increase in healthcare expenditure, a difference driven by inpatient, outpatient, and medication prescription expenditures. Greater coordination of epilepsy care accounting for the presence of multiple chronic conditions may help lower the cost of epilepsy.

DAMPAK HEALTH CAPITAL TERHADAP PERTUMBUHAN EKONOMI: PEMBUKTIAN DARI NEGARA TERPILIH DI ASIA TENGGARA DENGAN PENDEKATAN MODEL AUTOREGRESSIVE DISTRIBUTED LAG (ARDL)

The purpose of this study is to analyze the long-term impacts of health capital on economic growth in Southeast Asia from 2000 – 2021. This study employed the autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) model to estimate the long-run and short-run nexus among the variables. Furthermore, FMOLS, DOLS and CCR were used for a more robust examination of the empirical findings. The results of this study show that health capital (proxy by health expenditure per capita) has a long-run relationship with economic growth (proxy by GDP per capita) and its impact on economic growth is positive and significant, this implies that an increase in the health expenditure per capita will increase GDP per capita. In addition, the error correction term (ECT) estimation result is negative and significant (-1,395) implying disequilibrium of short-term shocks in the previous year will experience a long-term balance adjustment in the current year with average speed of 139,5% per year