Incorporation Of TiO2 Nanoparticles Research Articles

Characterization and photocatalytic performance of cement mortars with incorporation of TiO2 and mineral admixtures.

As the main components of the building envelope, construction materials have a straight relation with air contaminants from anthropogenic origins. Titanium dioxide has been recently applied in construction industry products since its photocatalytic properties can be used for pollutant degradation purposes. This study evaluated the performance of cement-based mortars with the incorporation of TiO2 nanoparticles and mineral admixtures. Six mortar compositions were defined by considering two reference mixes (with and without TiO2 incorporation), two mineral admixtures (bentonite and metakaolin) as partial cement replacement and one waste from ornamental stone processing in two levels of partial substitution of natural sand. Consistency index, density, and entrained air content of mixtures were investigated at fresh state. Compressive strength, water absorption, sorptivity, and micrographs from scanning electron microscopy were used to characterize mortars at hardened state. It was observed that incorporation of TiO2 does not considerably change mortar's properties at fresh and hardened state, despite a denser microstructure and improved interfacial transition zone. In general, the relation between the water-to-cement ratio and porosity on the performances of TiO2-added mortars was shown, which is strongly related to their photocatalytic efficiency. Metakaolin mixtures were more efficient to NO conversion, and high selectivity was observed for the bentonite mortars.

Effects of TiO2 nanoparticles on the physicochemical and biological properties of oxidized sodium alginate/polyacrylamide-gelatin composite hydrogels fabricated by interpenetrating network approach

To enhance the applicability of alginate hydrogel in tissue engineering, we attempted to fabricate oxidized sodium alginate/polyacrylamide-gelatin (OSA/PAM-GT) composite hydrogels by interpenetrating network approach with the hydroxyapatite/D-glucono-δ-lactone (HAP/GDL) as the endogenous ionic cross-linking agent for oxidized sodium alginate (OSA) and N, N′-methylenebisacrylamide (MBAA) as the chemical cross-linking agent for polyacrylamide (PAM), followed by their surface coverage with gelatin. Then TiO2 nanoparticles as the reinforcing agent were added to the OSA/PAM-GT hydrogel matrix to construct organic/inorganic hybrid OSA/TiO2/PAM-GT composite hydrogels. In particular, the effects of the amount of TiO2 nanoparticles on the microscopic morphology, mechanical properties, swellability, biodegradability, bio-mineralization and biocompatibility of the composite hydrogels were studied. Experimental results indicated that the addition of TiO2 nanoparticles into the matrix of OSA/TiO2/PAM-GT composite hydrogels could effectively regulate the porosity, mechanical properties, swelling ratio, in vitro biodegradability and bio-mineralization of OSA/TiO2/PAM-GT composite. Moreover, OSA/TiO2/PAM-GT composite hydrogels had the best biocompatibility when the content of TiO2 nanoparticles was 0.5% (w/v), indicating that an appropriate amount of TiO2 nanoparticles could effectively promote cell adhesion, proliferation and differentiation. Consequently, the combined method of the interpenetrating network technology, the incorporation of TiO2 nanoparticles with the surface coverage of gelatin could overcome the defects of alginate hydrogels to some extent, making OSA/TiO2/PAM-GT composite hydrogels suitable for tissue engineering applications.

Development of polyvinylpyrrolidone, inorganic nanoparticles, and lithium carbonate nanostructured systems

AbstractNanocomposites with inorganic nanofillers spread in a polymer matrix have been used for the development of pharmaceutical systems to treat mental illnesses such as bipolar disorder and Alzheimer's disease. In this study, nanostructured particles using a solution intercalation technique combined with a spray‐drying process using polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), montmorillonite, titanium dioxide, and lithium carbonate, with the aim of designing a new drug delivery system. XRD and low‐field nuclear magnetic resonance analyses showed that PVP/MMT 1% achieved an intercalated/exfoliated morphology. However, the incorporation of TiO2 nanoparticles into the PVP matrix did not affect its structure, indicating that there was not a strong interaction between the polymer and the TiO2 nanoparticles. Thermal analysis did not reveal any changes in the nanocomposites compared to the pure polymer. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis revealed a pseudo‐spherical shape, and SEM‐energy‐dispersive x‐ray spectrometry (EDS) confirmed the dispersion of MMT in the PVP matrix. The introduction of lithium carbonate into the PVP/MMT matrix created a new system with higher molecular mobility; the drug introduction increased the mean droplet size, and the zeta potential remained negative. Overall, the results indicate that the applied methodology can produce a new nanostructured particle as a drug delivery system.

Incorporation of TiO2 nanoparticles in CoWP coating for improved wear and corrosion resistance via electrodeposition

The CoWP/TiO2 composite coating is prepared by electrodeposition by adding TiO2 nanoparticles in the plating solution. The influence of TiO2 nanoparticles on the composition, thickness, roughness, surface morphology, mechanical performance and corrosion resistance of CoWP/TiO2 composite coating is investigated. It is found that adding proper amount of TiO2 nanoparticles in the plating solution can improve the deposition rate, increase the coating thickness, and enhance the wear resistance and corrosion resistance of composite coating. TiO2 nanoparticles in the plating solution can enter the crystal lattice of CoWP alloy and induce heterogeneous nucleation during electrodeposition, which plays the role of refining grain, so as to obtain compact surface morphology with smaller surface roughness. The CoWP/TiO2 composite coating electrodeposited from the plating solution with 15 g/L TiO2 nanoparticles has the best wear resistance and corrosion resistance with the smallest wear scar depth (17.04 µm) and minimum corrosion current density (12.92 μA/cm2). When the TiO2 nanoparticles in the solution are up to 20 g/L, the agglomeration phenomenon of TiO2 nanoparticles inhibits the electrodeposition, resulting in the decline of deposition rate, the increase of alloy surface roughness, and the decrease of wear and corrosion resistance performance.

Hybrid of Conjugated Polymers with Incorporation of Metal Oxide Nanocomposites for Improving Optoelectronic Properties

Herein, the incorporation of TiO2 nanoparticles (NPs), SiO2 NPs, and their nanocomposite (STNC) to enhance the optoelectronic properties of the hybrid of poly[9,9′‐di‐n‐octylfluorenyl‐2,7‐diyl] (F8), poly[2‐methoxy‐5(2‐ethylhexyl)‐1,4‐phenylenevinylene)] (MEH‐PPV), and poly[2‐methoxy‐5‐(3,7‐dimethyl‐octyloxy)‐1,4‐phenylenevinylene]‐end capped with dimethylphenyl (MDMO–PPV–DMP) are revealed. The tune of the donor (F8) conjugated length can be detected from the red shift in absorption spectra when TiO2 NPs and SiO2 NPs are added, as well as an increase in emission intensity of the donor. The addition of acceptors (MEH–PPV or MDMO–PPV–DMP) to the donor results in a new absorption peak at 510 nm, which increases when TiO2 NPs and SiO2 NPs or STNC are incorporated into the ternary hybrid. The incorporation of STNC into F8 is anticipated to reduce the donor energy bandgap and improve the energy transfer from F8 to both acceptors. Moreover, Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) is improved in the ternary hybrid, as evidenced by enhanced emission spectra of the donor and both acceptors, increased broadness of photoluminescence excitation spectra, and shifting blue color toward white region. The ternary hybrid with STNC‐based organic light‐emitting diode shows superior current and turn‐on voltage compared to other devices, which is likely due to its superior FRET.

Flexible PET/(PET-TiO2) core/shell nanofibrous mats as potential photoanode layer for dye-sensitized solar cells, DSSCs

In this detailed study, high porous flexible structures composed of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) and a PET composite comprised of titanium dioxide (PET-TiO2) core/shell nanofibrous mats were developed using coaxial electrospinning technique. Two different TiO2 shapes (nanobars and nanorhombics) were developed, using the solvothermal synthesis method, then incorporated at various contents (0–20 wt%) in the shell layer of the nanofiber to improve the optical, thermal, and mechanical properties of their corresponding fibrous mats to use them as alternative porous structures to the brittle porous TiO2 based photoelectrode presently used. The surface morphology, porosity, specific surface area, thermal stability, dye adsorption, optical and mechanical properties of the so developed nanofibrous mats were investigated. Emphasis was to the effect of solvent miscibility and solvent composition on fibrous mats' morphology. The successful incorporation of TiO2 nanoparticles inside the nanofibers’ shell was confirmed by various characterizations techniques. It was observed that addition of up to 15 wt% TiO2 shifted the UV–Visible absorption of the of the so developed nanofibrous mats to larger wavelength. Moreover, PET/(PET-TiO2) core/shell nanofibrous mats obtained with nanobars TiO2 showed higher thermal stability due to a better TiO2/PET interfacial interaction. Photoluminescence results confirmed the efficient charge transfer between TiO2 nanoparticles and PET with a minimum recombination of the photogenerated charges.

Effect of Gamma Radiation on the Properties of Poly(Methyl Methacrylate)/Titanium Dioxide Nanocomposite Films

In this study, poly(methyl methacrylate)/titanium dioxide (PMMA/TiO2) nanocomposite films (NFs) were prepared by a solution casting method and afterward irradiated with gamma (γ)-rays at different doses. The structural and optical properties of the PMMA/TiO2NFs before and afterγ-irradiation at different doses were analyzed by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) spectroscopy, respectively. In addition, the impact ofγ-dose on the wetting properties of PMMA/TiO2was determined by measuring the water contact angle. The XRD patterns illustrated new sharp peaks after the incorporation of TiO2nanoparticles (NPs) into the PMMA matrix, which could be due to the interaction of TiO2with PMMA owing to the change in the crystallographic organization. Moreover, the degree of the disorder increases with increasingγ-dose. Optical property studies revealed that the optical gap-band energy of the PMMA/TiO2dropped to 3.92 eV at the highestγ-dose compared with pure PMMA, which was estimated to be 4.5 eV. A remarkable increase in the number of carbon atoms per cluster was observed with increasingγ-dose. The water contact angle was decreased with increasingγ-dose. The decrease in water contact angle is due to the formation of an oxidized layer and/or carbonaceous clusters on the surface of theγ-irradiated nanocomposite films. Therefore, it can be concluded that PMMA/TiO2NFs with controlled optical gap-band energy and controlled water contact angle can be prepared by theγ-irradiation technique to be used for the fabrication of optoelectronic products.

Skin-inspired hierarchically buckled fibers with stretchable porous microarchitectures and customizable functionalities

Advanced functional material fibers with surface porous microstructures are widely promising for smart and functional wearables owing to their unique structures and properties. However, design of advanced functional material fibers with surface hierarchically porous microstructures, high stretchability and desired functionalities is still a considerable challenge. In this study, inspired by the formed surface buckling of finger joint skin, we present a novel kind of hierarchically buckled porous microstructured fibers (HBPMFs) based on a general physicochemical strategy consisted of material systems manipulation, interfacial self-assembly, stretching-releasing control, and thermal annealing. The developed HBPMFs showed controllable skin-inspired buckling features and unique stretchable microarchitectures of porosity, and could also be facilely incorporated with functional nanomaterials to form a new kind of advanced functional material fibers that integrate desired functional nanomaterials in stretchable porous microstructures with more exposed porous surface area for higher performance. Influential factors such as polymer bricks, solutes, solvents, concentrations, fiber substrates and pre-stretching strain were also investigated. As demonstration of application, advanced functional material fibers with incorporation of TiO2 nanoparticles exhibited significantly enhanced photocatalytic performance for organic pollutants than control samples. This study provides an efficient strategy and new insights into design of a new kind of functional fiber materials with stretchable porous microstructures and customizable functionalities for advanced applications.

Electrospun biodegradable scaffolds based on poly (ε-caprolactone)/gelatin containing titanium dioxide for bone tissue engineering application; in vitro study

In this study, Poly (ε-caprolactone) (PCL)/Gelatin/TiO2 nanofibrous scaffolds were prepared using electrospinning. The effects of TiO2 nanoparticles (NPs) addition on morphology, mechanical, chemical, thermal, and cellular behavior, and antibacterial properties of PCL/gelatin scaffolds were investigated. Different amounts of TiO2 NPs (0.06, 0.6, and 1 w/v %) were incorporated into the polymer blend to form a homogenous nanocomposite solution. The experimental results exhibited that the hydrophilicity of the scaffolds was improved by incorporating TiO2 NPs, as shown by the water contact angle measurement. Also, the mechanical and thermal behaviors of fabricated scaffolds were enhanced. Moreover, Human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (hMSC) were used to investigate the bioactivity and biocompatibility of scaffolds. The MTT assay results showed no toxicity effect for scaffolds. However, releasing reactive oxygen at the highest concentration of TiO2 was remarkably increased, resulting in cell toxicity. Hybridizing biopolymer with TiO2 nanoparticles improves its bone regeneration capability. Thereby, incorporating an optimum amount of TiO2 NPs into PCL/Gelatin composites could be a promising approach for bone tissue engineering applications.

Effect of TiO2 nanoparticles on the photocatalytic properties of PEO coatings on Mg alloy

A comprehensive study of the properties of coatings formed on a magnesium alloy by plasma electrolytic oxidation (PEO) using the electrolytes with nanosized particles of anatase (titanium dioxide) has been carried out. Formed coatings reduce corrosion current density 2.5-fold and increase hardness by 25% compared to a coating without particles. Confocal micro-Raman spectroscopy revealed the presence of anatase and rutile phases in the composition of PEO coating due to the incorporation of TiO2 nanoparticles during plasma electrolytic treatment. The presence of titanium dioxide had a positive effect on the photocatalytic properties of coatings: the constant rate of the methyl orange and methyl blue decomposition is increased in 1.6 and 1.8-fold, respectively, compared to the coating formed in electrolyte without TiO2 particles.

Evaluation of the Shear Bond Strength of the Orthodontic Composites Modified with Various Concentrations of TiO2 Nanoparticles: An In vitro Study

Aim: This study aimed to evaluate the effect of various concentrations of TiO2 nanoparticles incorporation on the shear bond strength of the two different orthodontic composites.
 Materials and Methods: A total of 80 freshly extracted premolars were divided into two groups of 40 teeth each. The extracted teeth in each of these two groups were further divided into four subgroups with ten teeth (n=10) in each, depending on the concentrations of TiO2 NPs (0.0%, 1.0%, 5.0% and 10.0%) in the Transbond XT and Enlight composites. Then the teeth were mounted in cold-cure acrylic resin poured into PVC tubes. The teeth were vertically embedded in acrylic up to the cementoenamel junction (CEJ), and a standard bonding procedure was carried out to bond the brackets using both composites. The shear bond strength was evaluated using a universal testing machine at a crosshead speed of 05mm/minute until the brackets de-bond from the tooth surface. The obtained data were subjected to statistical analysis using Oneway ANOVA and Posthoc tests.
 Results: The control groups of both the composites showed more shear bond strength compared to the modified groups. One-way ANOVA showed significant differences (p=0.000) among the groups. Posthoc analysis showed significant differences between the control and modified groups and also between the modified groups in both the composites except between the control and 1.0 wt% and 5.0 and 10.0wt% groups of the Enlight composite.
 Conclusion: A decrease in the shear bond strength was observed with an increase in the concentrations of TiO2 nanoparticles in both the composites.

High performance, low‐fouling nanocomposite membrane with TiO2 nanomaterial in polysulfone matrix for advanced water treatment

AbstractIn the present article, nanocomposite TiO2/polysulfone membranes were prepared for advanced water treatment and removal of surfactant and dye from water were evaluated. The nanocomposite membranes demonstrated enhanced antifouling properties. Scanning electron microscopy, energy‐dispersive X‐ray spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy were conducted to characterize particles and fabricated nanocomposite membranes. The antifouling characteristics of the membrane were assessed by ultrafiltration of model foulants such as sodium alginate and egg albumin and it was found that the nanocomposite membranes were less prone to fouling. Separation performance of Congo red dye and non‐ionic surfactant Triton X‐100 were evaluated and the nanocomposite membranes have shown encouraging results. With incorporation of TiO2 nanoparticles, ultimate tensile strength increased while elongation at break decreased. Decrement in pore size with incorporation of nanomaterial and change in surface characteristics were responsible for improved performance of membrane.

Incorporating TiO2 nanoparticles into the multichannels of electrospun carbon fibers to increase the adsorption of polysulfides in room temperature sodium-sulfur batteries

Incorporating TiO2 nanoparticles into the multichannels of electrospun carbon fibers to increase the adsorption of polysulfides in room temperature sodium-sulfur batteries

Controlling incorporation of TiO2 nanoparticles in the carbonization process: a new strategy to develop a nitrogen-doped carbon-based Mo2C@TiO2 electrocatalyst for electrochemical hydrogen evolution reaction

Nitrogen-doped carbon-based Mo2C@TiO2 was synthesized via controlling incorporation of TiO2 nanoparticles in the carbonization process. The electrocatalyst shows excellent stability with a slightly declined current density of 92.88% after 35 h of operation because of the involvement of TiO2.

Photocatalytic VOCs Degradation Efficiency of Polypropylene Membranes by Incorporation of TiO2 Nanoparticles.

A class of serious environmental contaminants related to air, namely volatile organic compounds (VOCs), has currently attracted global attention. The present study aims to remove harmful VOCs using as-prepared polypropylene membrane + TiO2 nanoparticles (PPM + TiO2 NPs) via the photocatalytic gas bag A method under UV light irradiation. Here, formaldehyde was used as the target VOC. The PPM + TiO2 NPs material was systematically characterized using various microscopic and spectroscopic techniques, including field emission scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, ultraviolet-visible diffuse reflectance spectroscopy, photoluminescence spectroscopy, and contact angle measurements. These results confirm the successful preparation of PPM + TiO2 NPs, which can be applied to the degradation of VOCs. Photocatalytic degradation of formaldehyde gas reached 70% within 1 h of UV illumination. The energy bandgap and photoluminescence intensity reductions are responsible for the improved photocatalytic activity. These characteristics increase the charge transport while decreasing the recombination of electron-hole pairs.

Functionalization of graphene nanostructures with inorganic nanoparticles and their use for the removal of pharmaceutical pollutants in water

Emerging pollutants such as pharmaceuticals are of special concern because despite their low environmental concentration, their biological activity can be intense, and they should be prevented to reach uncontrolledly to the environment. A graphene-based hybrid material decorated with Fe3O4 and TiO2 nanoparticles (NPs) has been prepared to effectively remove emerging pollutants as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) Ibuprofen and Diclofenac present in water at low environmental concentrations by a one-step functionalization process following a novel gentle and scalable surfactant depletion approach. Following this methodology, nanoparticles are progressively deprived of their original surfactant in the presence of graphene, leading to the formation of hybrid nanostructures composed of two different types of nanoparticles well dispersed over the graphene nanosheets. Ibuprofen and Diclofenac adsorption kinetics on the composites was investigated via UV-Vis spectroscopy. The as prepared hybrid material possesses high adsorption capacity, superparamagnetic properties, photocatalytic behavior, and good water dispersibility. Thanks to incorporating TiO2 nanoparticles as in situ catalysts, the adsorption performance of composites is restored after use, which could be a promising recycling pathway for the adsorbents in wastewater treatments.

Corrosion, Wear, and Antibacterial Behaviors of Hydroxyapatite/MgO Composite PEO Coatings on AZ31 Mg Alloy by Incorporation of TiO2 Nanoparticles

Plasma electrolytic oxidation (PEO) is a promising surface treatment for generating a thick, adherent coating on valve metals using an environmentally friendly alkaline electrolyte. In this study, the PEO method was used to modify the surface of AZ31 Mg alloy. The composite coatings were formed in a phosphate-based electrolyte containing hydroxyapatite nanoparticles (NPs) and different concentrations (1, 2, 3, and 4 g/L) of TiO2 NPs. The results showed that the incorporation of TiO2 NPs in the composite coatings increased the porosity, coating thickness, surface roughness, and surface wettability of the coatings. The corrosion-resistance results of coatings in simulated body fluid (SBF) were tested for up to 72 h and all coatings showed superior corrosion resistance compared to the bare substrate. Among samples containing TiO2, the sample containing 1 g/L TiO2 had the highest inner layer resistance (0.51 kΩ·cm2) and outer resistance (285 kΩ·cm2) and the lowest average friction coefficient (395.5), so it had the best wear and corrosion resistance performance. The antibacterial tests showed that the higher the concentration of TiO2 NPs, the lower the adhesion of bacteria, resulting in enhanced antibacterial properties against S. aureus. The addition of 4 g/L of TiO2 NPs to the electrolyte provided an antibacterial rate of 97.65% for the coating.

Incorporating TiO2 nanoparticles into the multichannels of electrospun carbon fibers to increase the adsorption of polysulfides in room temperature sodium-sulfur batteries

With the rapid development of electric vehicles and large-scale power grids, lithium-ion batteries inevitably face the problem that their limited energy density and high cost cannot meet the growing demand. Room temperature sodium-sulfur (RT Na-S) batteries, which have the potential to replace lithium-ion batteries, have become a focus of attention. However, the challenging problem of their poor cycling performance cause by the “shuttle effect” of the reaction intermediates (sodium polysulfides) needs to be addressed. We report a method to incorporate TiO2 nano particles into the multichannels of electrospun carbon fibers (TiO2@MCCFs) to stabilize the sulfur compounds and produce high-performance RT Na-S batteries. The TiO2@MCCFs were prepared by electrospinning followed by heat treatment, and were infiltrated by molten sulfur to fabricate S/TiO2@MCCF cathode materials. The addition of the TiO2 nanoparticles increases the affinity of cathode materials for polysulfides and promotes the conversion of polysulfides to lower order products. This was verified by DFT calculations. A S/TiO2@MCCF cathode with a S content of 54% has improved electrochemical rate and cycling performance, with a specific capacity of 445.1 mAh g−1 after 100 cycles at 0.1 A g−1 and a nearly 100% Coulombic efficiency. Even at 2 A g−1, the cathode still has a capacity of 300.5 mAh g−1 after 500 cycles. This work provides a new way to construct high performance RT Na-S battery cathodes.

Enhanced mechanical and electrical properties of ECR-glass reinforced polyimide composites with incorporation of TiO2 for insulation applications

This paper presents the mechanical behaviour of novel class composites consisting of ECR-glass type reinforced polyimide (PI) composite loaded with TiO2 nanoparticles. ECR glass reinforced PI composites were fabricated by adding TiO2 particles at three different concentrations namely; 2, 4, and 6 wt% using 3D-Turbula dispersion and Spark Plasma Sintering (SPS) method. The morphologies, crystallinity, mechanical, and electrical properties of the produced composites were evaluated using scanning electron microscope (SEM), X-ray diffractometer, nanoindentation test, and LCR meter device. The SEM results revealed that the TiO2 nanoparticles were homogenously dispersed into the PI composites. The mechanical properties, such as hardness, stiffness, and elastic modulus of the pure PI and ECR glass reinforced PI composite was improved by the incorporation of TiO2 nanoparticles. Maximum hardness and elastic modulus values of 2.19 GPa and 13.99 GP, respectively, was observed in ECR reinforced PI composited loaded with 6 wt% TiO2 nanoparticles. In addition, ECR glass reinforced PI composites with 6 wt% TiO2 nanoparticles depicted the lowest dielectric constant (1.18), dielectric loss (1.14) and electrical conductivity (3.16 × 10−6 S/cm). Finally, the findings suggest the easy processability of PI nanocomposites and their potential for mechanical and electrical insulation applications.

Shape memory polymer smart plaster for orthopaedic treatments

Shape memory polymer (SMP) is a smart material that can respond to external stimuli and recover its permanent shape after being programmed. Researchers have been interested in SMPs for invasive biomedical applications, but there are many opportunities for non-invasive applications. Thus, in this study, a novel hybrid SMP nanocomposite smart plaster (SP) is synthesised for non-invasive orthopaedic fractured bone immobilisation. Due to its considerable structural properties, the SP for this study was synthesised with Bisphenol A epoxy, reinforced with E-glass fibres, its bioinspiration qualities were improved incorporating TiO2 nanoparticles. After that, the SP was preserved for three months under five different conditions. This was done to compare their environmental durability and usability for fractured bone immobilisation by analysing the resulting thermomechanical and shape memory properties. In addition, an Abaqus finite element model was developed and validated which can be used to optimise the design and geometrical parameters of the SP. The SP vitro performance was verified, demonstrating a lower limb leg cylindrical cast in less than 10 min. The SP at 50 °C and two layers of cotton webril produced the optimum results, and the recorded maximum undercast temperature was less than 45 °C, which was within the safe limit for human use. Furthermore, the undercast pressure did not surpass 30.2 ± 5.2 mmHg, indicating that the results are equivalent to other bone immobilisation procedures. Therefore, the synthesised SP showed a promising approach to address existing orthopaedic fractured bone limb immobilisation challenges.