Farm Income Research Articles

Digital transformation at what cost? A case study from Germany estimating the adoption potential of precision farming technologies under different scenarios

This study addresses the research gap in understanding the low adoption of Precision Agriculture Technologies (PATs) by extrapolating regional trends from in-depth farm-level analyses. Focusing on a smallholder region in Germany, it investigates the adoption limits of PATs, questioning whether the low rates are due to unknown economic thresholds and how these thresholds can be influenced. Six PATs are evaluated, along with the impact of six potential measures to increase adoption rates, using predictive economic modeling and scenario analysis. Findings confirm low adoption rates, peaking at 4.61 % for automatic guidance and 17.73 % for site-specific fertilization, highlighting that current strategies are only partially effective, especially for precision weeding, site-specific seeding, planting, and spraying. Fortunately, targeted interventions for less adopted PATs enhance average farm income, which may increase their broader acceptance. The study advocates for targeted, technology-specific strategies over broad measures like subsidies, emphasizing the effectiveness of private sector initiatives like machinery cooperatives and service providers in improving adoption. The study concludes that greater PAT uptake in agriculture is only possible if realistic expectations are set by all stakeholders and tailored strategies are developed to promote a comprehensive digital transformation of the sector.

A Short Note on Agricultural Household’s Farm Income: Evidence from the National Sample Survey 77th Round

An examination of monthly farm income obtained by agricultural households in India presents a very dismal picture of these households. Only a small percentage of agricultural households in India receive a monthly farm income greater than ₹10,000. Furthermore, nearly 70 per cent of agricultural households in India earn a farm income of less than ₹5,000 per month. Agricultural households in several states are too poor even after accounting for income from non-farm sources. A large proportion of agricultural households in Jharkhand, Bihar, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh are unable to obtain a subsistence level of income. JEL Codes: Q12, D31, R20

Does livelihood diversification improve food security among rural households?: evidence from Ghana

ABSTRACT Livelihood diversification (LD) is crucial for rural households due to increasing climate variability and declining farm incomes in the global south. Literature has extensively documented the benefits of LD in emerging economies. However, there is still a gap in the econometric evidence of LD on the food security of rural households in Ghana. This study addresses this gap by examining the factors that influence LD using the Ghana Living Standards Survey (GLSS 7) data collected from 133 rural households in Northern Ghana. Results from the censored Tobit regression model, multiple linear regression, and Simpson Diversification Index (SDI) indicated that diversification averaged 0.313 and ranged from 0.000 to 0.709 (zero to 70.9%). Total food expenditures (TFE) measured as a proxy of food security declined at low levels of diversification. Beyond the diversification level of 0.480, total food expenditure increased steadily. The findings revealed that only 24.6% of the households had diversification scores higher than the turning point of 0.480. The Tobit model also showed that remittance income, technical education, household size, marital status, access to extension services, and ownership of mobile phones were significant drivers of LD. The findings have demonstrated that LD improves food security in rural Ghana.

A Study on Doubling of farmers income in Telangana

A Study on Doubling of farmers income in Telangana

Energy and enviro‐economic (3E) assessment of greenhouse solar dryer (GHSD) for drying and quality evaluation of medicinal Ocimum sanctum leaves: A sustainable path for preservation

AbstractThis article presents an experimental analysis of greenhouse solar dryer (GHSD) under natural and forced convection for shelf storage of Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) leaves, and the obtained results are compared with conventional open sun drying and shade drying to determine the optimal drying method. The GHSD, being capable of raising the interior temperature 15–25 °C higher than the ambient temperature, took only 2.5 and 2.0 h for drying of 100 gm Tulsi under natural and forced convection mode compared to 5.0 and 7.0 h in open sun and shade drying, respectively. The peak drying rate under natural and forced convection GHSD drying was 0.57 and 0.70 gm of water per gram of dry solid, while dryer efficiencies were estimated as 14% and 16%, respectively. The findings revealed a reduction in drying time by 50% and 60% compared to open sun drying, and by 64% and 71% compared to shade drying under natural and forced convection, respectively. The calculated energy payback time (EPBT) was 0.78 years with earned carbon credit of US$ 60.22 for 10 years of intended life span while the economic payback period was 1.3 years associated with potential saving of Rs 1,11,916. In quality evaluation, total phenolic and flavonoid content (73.39 mg GAE/g and 5.09 mg QE/g) along with antioxidant potential (IC50 value: 55.09 μg/mL) have been recorded higher for the leaves dried in GHSD compared to open sun drying. The findings established a sustainable, eco‐friendly and economical path for the blooming herbal medicine industry.Practical applicationGreenhouse solar dryer is an eco‐friendly, sustainable, clean and hygienic way to dry herbs and medicinal plants. The greenhouse solar dryer can shorten the drying time by 50%–60% compared to natural stand in the sun (OSD), improve the quality of dried herbs and medicinal plants, and reduce the decay rate of the dried products. These leaves can be best suited for Ayurveda medicine industries for herbal powder (Churna). Being economically advantageous, greenhouse solar dryers improve the shelf life of the dried leaves, reduce their density, and lower transportation costs, boosting farmers' income in herbal farming and nutritional security.

RISIKO USAHATANI TOMAT (LYCOPERSICUM ESCULENTUMMILL) DI KECAMATAN LEMBAH GUMANTI KABUPATEN SOLOK (Risks of Tomato (Lycopersicum Esculentum) Farming in Lembah Gumanti District Solok Regency)

This study aims to determine analyze the characteristics of tomato farmers, analyze the income of tomato farmers and analyze the risk level of tomato farming in Lembah Gumanti District, Solok Regency. The method used in this study is quantitative descriptive The analysis used is income, variety, standard deviation, coefficient of variation, and lower limit. The respondents who were sampled were 40 farmers with a population of 423 farmers and were selected randomly (proportional random sampling). The results showed that the characteristics of tomato farmers have a productive age of 25 to 48 years, a low level of education, farmers who already have long farming experience. The amount of cash costs incurred by farmers is IDR 6,456,733.33 / MT and the calculated costs are IDR. 4,919,309.63/MT with revenue of Rp 23,608,331.25/MT so that cash income is Rp 17,209,386.82/MT and total income is Rp 12,290,077.19/MT. Tomato farming has a production risk level with a KV value of 10.39, price risk with a KV value of 18.56, and income risk with a KV value of 13.36 with a lower income limit of Rp 10,450,763.47 where this figure will indicate the amount of loss that will be experienced by tomato farmer

Evolutionary game analysis of multi-agent cooperation strategy analysis in agricultural water conservancy PPP project under digitization background

This study constructed a system dynamics (SD) evolutionary game model, from which we analyzed the conditions that need to be met by multi-agents to achieve cooperation in agricultural water conservancy (AWC) Public-Private Partnership (PPP) projects. Simultaneously, this study used numerical simulation to depict the impact of initial participation willingness, reward, punishment, income, and other parameters of local governments, project enterprises, and farmers on the evolution strategy. The results firstly showed that the basic conditions for tripartite cooperation are to strengthen the rewards and punishments for project enterprises and improve the participation benefits of farmers. Secondly, it showed that increasing the rewards for farmers and improving the project dividend benefits can effectively motivate farmers to participate. Thirdly, it showed that enhancing the incentive subsidies and reputation benefits for project enterprise’s participation, as well as strengthening the supervision of local government, boosts the motivation of project enterprises significantly. However, it is vital to ensure that the reward amounts are not too high to allow local government to play its guiding role efficiently. Lastly, the results indicated that digital technology can help reduce the participation cost of local government, project enterprises and farmers, and improve the external reputation benefits of each participant, thus forming a win-win situation for all three participants. Analyzing the cooperation strategies of the three parties in AWC PPP projects provides theoretical support and a decision-making basis for the efficient operation of AWC PPP projects under the digital background, and also provides practical policy recommendations for the high-quality development of AWC.

Determination of Oil Content and Fatty Acid Composition of Tea Plants at Plantations in the Black Sea Region

Aims: The aim of this study was to determine the fatty acid composition and oil content of C. sinensis seeds collected from different locations at the Northern Black Sea region. Study Design: The study based on the collection of tea seed samples from different locations at the the Northern Black Sea Region in Türkiye and comparing their fatty acid composition and oil content of analyzed samples. Place and Duration of Study: Recep Tayyip Erdogan University, Faculty of Agronomy, Field Crops Department, Rize, Türkiye, between 2022 and July 2023. Methodology: A total of 54 samples were taken within the scope of determining oil content and fatty acid composition of Camellia sinensis seeds collected from different locations. The location were choosen from different cities concerning altitude. The number of samples taken from the province of Rize is 37, the number of samples taken from the province of Trabzon is 7, the number of samples taken from the province of Giresun is 5, and the number of samples taken from the province of Artvin is 5. Fatty Acid composition was analyzed using GC-MS and oil content with an automated oil extraction device. Results: Oil ratio and fatty acid composition were determined in these samples. As stated in the literature, oleic acid, which is the criterion of vegetable oil quality, was found to be high in all samples. With Principal Component Analysis, the oil content and fatty acid composition data of the samples were used to reveal the differences in the samples. The obtained data will shed light on future studies. Conclusion: Knowing the fatty acid composition of tea oils will enable production of oils according to their intended use. For this purpose, it will be possible to produce oils suitable for the purpose by growing the desired types in suitable regions. We have to consider, that seeds were obtained after leaf harvest of tea plants. We can assume that the seed yield will increase if the tea plants are grown only for seed production. With governmental support tea seed oil production will be an potential additional income for local farmers.

ECONOMIC FEASIBILITY STUDY FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF A MICRO-INDUSTRY PRODUCING KOMBUCHA FLAVORED WITH PASSION FRUIT FROM THE CAATINGA.

Kombucha is a fermented beverage of Chinese origin produced from the infusion of black or green tea from the Camelia sinensis plant, sugar and a symbiotic culture known as SCOBY. After fermentation, the drink becomes rich in natural nutrients with functions that are beneficial to health such as organic acids, amino acids, vitamin C, polyphenols and antibiotic substances. The present work aims at carrying out a study of the economic feasibility of opening a micro-industry for the production of a black tea kombucha flavored with passion fruit from the caatinga. The caatinga passion fruit is a species native to the dry areas of northeastern Brazil. This fruit is rich in flavonoids, vitamin C and carotenoids, which have antimicrobial and antioxidant properties. For the development of the study, specifications of processes, equipment and analysis of financial and economic indicators were carried out. The evaluation of the investments was carried out using the internal rate of return (IRR), minimum attractiveness rate (TAM), net present value (NPV), simple payback and discounted payback methods. The initial investment for the production of 2,000 L of kombucha flavored with passion fruit from the caatinga was R$ 187,199.78. The economic indicators obtained resulted in NPV of R$ 253,154.68, IRR of 22%, TAM of 13.34% p.a. and simple payback of 3.9 years considering a useful life of 10 years. The positive IRR reflects that the enterprise is economically viable and profitable, making it possible to invest and generate income for cooperatives and family farmers.

The role of Teff crop in Ethiopian life: consumption and contribution to rural livelihoods

Teff (Eragrostis tef) is believed to be the smallest grain in the world. It is the most important crop in Ethiopia in terms of production and consumption. Smallholder farmers produce Teff, and it is the main source of income for farmers in comparison to other cereal crops. Teff is the daily staple food for over 50 million Ethiopians. There is a need for information on agricultural consumption, disaggregated at district level, to support evidence-based decision-making at local level. The objective of this paper is to understand the consumption of Teff among rural smallholder producers at district level and assess the position of Teff among cereals in the lives of Ethiopian rural farmers. The study employed a multistage sampling technique to select the top Teff producing regions, districts, and kebeles (small administrative units) and collected primary data through focus group discussions (FGDs), key informants, and questionnaire respondents. The survey collected qualitative and quantitative data from 357 households. FGD, key informant interview (KII) participants and survey respondents were drawn from the same areas where the survey was conducted. The quantitative and qualitative data were subjected to statistical and content analysis respectively. The study findings revealed that on average households consume 26.92% of their Teff production per year. Moreover, there is a shift in the consumption of Teff which might be due to improved standards of living among the farmers, a health-conscious community, and improved income from Teff sales. Although Teff is a staple grain in Ethiopia, there is a statistically significant variation in Teff consumption among districts.

Assessment of the Present Status of Milk Handling and Management Practices in Some Areas of Bangladesh

Milk contamination by dairy workers' spoiled hands, unclean utensils, microbes, and polluted water has caused many milk-borne epidemics. Most milk-borne zoonoses are also contracted by drinking infected milk. Bangladesh lacks milking hygiene and farmer awareness, and the milk cleanliness of dairy farmers awareness and practices in different regions was accessed. This study was aimed at documenting the present milking and management practices of dairy producers in particular districts of Bangladesh. From June 2020 to June 2022, 300 small dairy cow owners in twelve areas were surveyed using a preset questionnaire. Results revealed that male respondents (59.5%) outnumbered female respondents (41.33%) across various age categories. Most farmers milked animals at the shed and washed their hands before milking. Over half of dairy farmers cleansed the udder and teat before milking. More than two-thirds of farmers let the calf suckle before and after milking, while 98.02 percent used concentrate feed for teat massage. Most farmers (95.58%) manually milked cows twice daily. The majority of farmers sold their milk (77.25%) rather than drink it (10.17%). The study found that 93.92 percent of milkmen cleaned the milking pail using water, while 3.5-2.5 percent utilized sand, ash, or detergent. Only 53.66% of dairy farmers washed their cows' udders and teats after milking, which may not be aware of potential contamination from dipping teats in sterile cream. Mastitis prevention was not practiced by 85.42 percent of the respondents. Four to eight percent of producers know about antibiotics, milk adulteration, milk safety, and food safety issues. The application of scientific management approaches to milking is still lacking in the study areas. Therefore, training programs on improved milking management procedures can help farmers produce clean milk, increase dairy animal production, and increase farming income.

Irrigation Water Management and Food Security in Nigeria

Food security remains a persistent challenge in Nigeria, a country with a rapidly growing population and a heavy reliance on rain-fed agriculture. Effective irrigation water management is crucial to improving agricultural productivity and addressing this critical issue, particularly in the face of climate change and increasing water scarcity. This study investigates the current state of irrigation water management and its impact on food security in Nigeria. The research employs a mixed-methods approach, combining an extensive literature review with field surveys, interviews, and focus group discussions with key stakeholders, including farmers, water resource managers, policymakers, and subject matter experts. The findings reveal significant gaps in Nigeria's existing irrigation water management system, including outdated infrastructure, inefficient water distribution, limited access to irrigation technology, and poor coordination among relevant government agencies and agricultural extension services. The study explores the multifaceted relationship between irrigation water management and food security, highlighting the impact of water availability, quality, and accessibility on crop yields, livestock production, and overall agricultural output. The analysis also examines the socioeconomic and environmental implications of poor irrigation water management, such as reduced farm incomes, food price volatility, and environmental degradation. Based on the research findings, the study proposes a comprehensive framework for sustainable irrigation water management in Nigeria. This framework emphasizes the integration of technological innovations, policy reforms, institutional strengthening, and community-based approaches to enhance the efficiency, equity, and resilience of the irrigation system. Key elements of the framework include modernizing irrigation infrastructure, promoting precision agriculture techniques, improving water governance and stakeholder coordination, and enhancing the capacity of farmers and water user associations. The implications of this study are far-reaching, as it provides policymakers, development agencies, and agricultural practitioners with a thorough understanding of the critical role of irrigation water management in achieving food security in Nigeria. The proposed framework offers a roadmap for the implementation of sustainable irrigation practices, which can contribute to increased agricultural productivity, improved rural livelihoods, and enhanced national food security. The findings of this research also offer valuable insights for other developing countries facing similar challenges in the realm of irrigation water management and food security.

Economic optimization of sustainable soil management: a Dutch case study

Soil quality is pivotal for crop productivity and the environmental quality of agricultural ecosystems. Achieving sufficient yearly income and long-term farm continuity are key goals for farmers, making sustainable soil management an economic challenge. Existing bio-economic models often inadequately address soil quality. In this study, we apply the novel FARManalytics model, which integrates chemical, physical, and biological indicators of soil quality indicator, quantitative rules on how these indicators respond to farmers’ production management over time, and an economic calculation framework that accurately calculates the contribution of production management decisions towards farm income. This is the first study applying this model on existing arable farms. FARManalytics optimizes crop rotation design, cover crops, manure and fertilizer application and crop residue management. Nine Dutch arable farms were analyzed with a high variation in farm size, soil type, and cultivated crops. First, we assessed farm differences in soil quality and farm economics. Second, we optimized production management to maximize farm income while meeting soil quality targets using farm-specific scenarios. Third, we explored the impact of recent policy measures to preserve water quality and to increase the contribution of local protein production. The results show that the case farms already perform well regarding soil quality, with 75% of the soil quality indicators above critical levels. The main soil quality bottlenecks are subsoil compaction and soil organic matter input. We show that even in front-runner farms, bio-economic modeling with FARManalytics substantially improves economic performance while increasing soil quality. We found that farm income could be increased by up to €704 ha−1 year−1 while meeting soil quality targets. Additionally, we show that to anticipate on stricter water quality regulation and market shift for protein crops, FARManalytics is able to provide alternative production management strategies that ensure the highest farm income while preserving soil quality for a set of heterogenous farms.

Role Of Cooperatives In Promoting Organic Farming In Uttar Pradesh

The shift toward organic farming in India, especially in Uttar Pradesh, has been accelerating in recent years. Cooperatives are playing a critical role in this transformation by providing farmers with the necessary support for adopting organic practices. This research paper examines the role of cooperatives in promoting organic farming in Uttar Pradesh, using data from 2024, to understand their impact on agricultural productivity, environmental sustainability, and farmer income. The paper presents a detailed analysis of the various initiatives undertaken by cooperatives, and government interventions, and highlights the challenges and opportunities for future expansion. Latest data is provided through tables that detail organic farming area, farmer participation, and cooperative initiatives.

Exploring the scalability and sustainability of community-based agroforestry to achieve planetary health benefits in Haiti’s Lower Artibonite Valley

Community-based agroforestry, as a planetary health solution, can rebuild fertile soils, minimize climate risk, diversify farmer incomes, and provide a source of food, raw materials, and other vital ecosystem functions. Utilizing focus groups, individual semi-structured interviews, and field observations, we studied how the Haiti Timber Reintroduction Program (HTRIP), an agroforestry program operating in Haiti since 2005, leveraged institutional infrastructures and social networks to facilitate the adoption, scaling, and sustainability of community-based agroforestry as a solution for planetary health. Results show that the adoption and scaling of community-based agroforestry was facilitated by support from institutional and social networks. The results underscore the importance of cross-sector collaboration and coordination in creating the enabling conditions necessary for successful community-based agroforestry implementation. Additionally, strengthened social networks, cultivated through long-term participation in the HTRIP, contributed to the program’s sustainability. While competing socio-political problems in some low-income settings may seem insurmountable—particularly those in fragile states, where our study took place—our research demonstrates that community-based agroforestry solutions are possible. Where culturally relevant, this ecologically and socially based practice could be scaled up to amplify its benefits to more communities. We encourage further research to explore the scaling up of regenerative practices such as agroforestry for climate resilience and planetary health.

Correlation between Farmers' Activeness in Farmer Groups with Productivity and Income of Cocoa Farming in Trenggalek Regency

The cocoa plantation in Suruh Village, Trenggalek Regency is the main supplier of cocoa beans to UPH Rumah Coklat owned by the Department of Agriculture and Food of Trenggalek Regency. For example, in cocoa farmers' participation in the "Tunggal Jaya" Farmers Group, farmers are taught to make rorak and worm palaces to deal with climate change which helps maintain soil moisture and increase fertility. The objectives of this study are to determine 1) the level of farmer activeness, 2) the level of productivity, 3) the level of income, and 4) the correlation between farmer activeness in farmer groups with productivity and income of cocoa farming in Suruh Village, Trenggalek Regency. The number of samples used was 111 respondents. Data analysis used the Likert scale, productivity analysis, income analysis, and Pearson correlation. The results of the study showed: 1) cocoa farmer activeness in farmer groups in Suruh Village, Trenggalek Regency is in the active category with an overall average score of 3.56; 2) the average productivity of cocoa farming is in the medium category at 0.54 tons/ha/year; 3) the average income of cocoa farming is Rp6,016,562/year; 4) the correlation between farmer activeness with productivity is 0.865, farmer activeness with income is 0.760, and productivity with income is 0.868. The direction of the three correlations is positive and significant.

Farmer Protests in Europe 2023–2024

SummaryIn 2023–2024, farmer protests swept across Europe, with tractors blocking roads and supermarkets, drawing significant media attention. Unlike previous protests, these events spread continent‐wide, suggesting a contagion effect. This paper documents the surge in farmer protests, explores their triggers and underlying causes, and emphasizes the need for a just transition to sustainable food systems. The protests were sparked by proposed policy changes, tighter environmental regulations, perceived pressures on farm incomes and increased trade competition. However, the root causes varied by country. Swift policy responses at both national and EU levels included retracting controversial measures like the Sustainable Use of Pesticides Regulation, but these actions also hindered key initiatives for transitioning to more sustainable agri‐food systems. Moving forward, a comprehensive public debate on the future of Europe's agri‐food systems is crucial, focusing on balancing environmental sustainability with the economic viability of agriculture. A major political challenge will be moving beyond simplistic dichotomies to develop a vision for a food system that fosters synergies between farmer interests as well as environmental and social objectives.

Physico-chemical and nutritional characteristics of 12 varieties of cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz, 1766) grown in the Republic of Guinea

Cassava is a distinctive contributor to food security and a source of income for smallholder farmers. Despite the importance of this agricultural product, very little data is available in Guinea, especially concerning the varieties grown and their nutritional composition. The aim of this research was to study the physico-chemical and nutritional characteristics of 12 varieties of cassava grown in Guinea with a view to selecting varieties that could be used to produce a <<Gari>> of better quality. Cassava tubers were collected in 6 regions in Guinea. The physico-chemical analyses were carried out on the pH and moisture content of the cassava paste from each of the 12 varieties, while the nutritional quality was determined on the basis of the composition of the varieties in carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and minerals. In general, pH values ranged from 6.29 to 7.29 while moisture levels ranged from 51.64% to 58.94%. In addition, all the varieties analysed were those rich in carbohydrates (with levels between 42.36% and 51.17%) but low in fat (values between 0.30% and 3.56%). On the other hand, three varieties, namely Farawoulen, Konko and Samouya, are the richest in protein with values of 8.05%, 5.48% and 4.23% respectively. In short, these cassava varieties produced in Guinea could be used, taking into account their biochemical composition, in future gari production work.

Efisiensi Pemasaran Karet Di Kabupaten Ogan Ilir Sumatera Selatan

The rubber commodity in Ogan Ilir Regency plays an important role in increasing family income, but currently, the income of rubber farmers is still relatively low because farmers are still traditional in their marketing, causing the prices received by farmers to be low. The objectives of this study are to 1) Identify the functions of rubber marketing institutions in Ogan Ilir Regency, 2) Analyze the efficiency of rubber marketing in Ogan Ilir Regency.. Sampling was carried out randomly. 75 samples were used in this research, with a population of rubber farmers, namely 236 farmers in Tanjung Batu District and 254 in Payaraman District. Locations were chosen purposively based on the same considerations: the subdistricts and villages that produce the largest rubber production. Data collection uses cross-section data. Rubber marketing efficiency is analyzed using marketing margin, farmer's share, profit to cost ratio and the Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) model. The research results show that rubber farmers in Ogan Ilir Regency use three marketing channel patterns. Based on the analysis of rubber marketing efficiency, it is recommended that rubber farmers in Ogan Ilir Regency use marketing channel 1, namely farmers-UPPB-factories and marketing channel 3, namely farmers-wholesalers-factories.

Effect of Farmer Group Empowerment and Agribusiness Training Program on Productivity and Income of Coffee Farmers in West Java

This study investigates the impact of Farmer Group Empowerment and Agribusiness Training Programs on the Productivity and Income of coffee farmers in West Java. The research utilizes a quantitative approach with a sample of 200 coffee farmers and significantly positively affect ploys Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) with Partial Least Squares (PLS) to analyze the relationships between the key variables. The results indicate that both Farmer Group Empowerment and Agribusiness Training Programs significantly positively affect Productivity and Income. However, Farmer Group Empowerment shows a stronger impact on productivity compared to training programs, emphasizing the importance of collective action in enhancing farming practices. These findings highlight the need for an integrated approach to agricultural development, combining empowerment with technical training to ensure sustainable improvements in farmers' livelihoods. The study provides valuable insights for policymakers and agricultural development practitioners seeking to promote rural development and increase smallholder farmers' productivity and income.