Increase In Income Research Articles

Combining healthiness and sustainability: An analysis of consumers’ preferences and willingness to pay for functional and sustainable snack bars

Despite the growing attention paid by consumers and policy makers to health and sustainability issues, contribution analyzing consumers attitude towards both health related and sustainability attributes of foods are lacking. This study aims to investigate consumers’ preferences and willingness to pay for sustainable functional foods, in particular snack bars with high anti-oxidant value and made with a sustainable production process. Results show consumers’ willingness to pay a price premium of 0.30€ for the purchase of such foods. The amount of price premium increases as income increases. Furthermore, women, health-conscious individuals and those more likely to try new foods are willing to pay more for the purchase of sustainable functional snack bars. The preferred attributes are those related to the healthiness, while those related to the sustainability are not considered relevant. The present study enriches literature on functional foods, also providing insights for policy makers and practitioners.

Research and Analysis of College Students' Investment and Financing under the Background of Internet

In recent years, the prosperity of Internet finance has led to the rapid development of investment and financial management industry. People's financial management is not only traditional bank savings, but also gradually transition to Internet financial management. With the increase of national income, the disposable funds obtained by college students will increase. As a generation with high viscosity in the Internet era, college students will be an important force in the future Internet financial management market. College students with strong learning ability and willingness to accept new things of higher advantage, can use the network platform for learning, consumption, financial management, and some students interested in finance and investment also dabbled in financial field. However, the lack of experience of college students and the lack of necessary risk prevention awareness of financial investment leads to bad online loans and financial fraud. Therefore, to finance investment into the students' future career planning curriculum has certain necessity. This paper mainly analyzes the situation of college students' Internet financial management, pointing out the characteristics of college students' Internet financial management, problems and future trends of college students' financial management. The purpose is to cultivate college students' financial habits, financial awareness and ability, establish a correct outlook on life and wealth, guide them, avoid falling into the trap of financial fraud, and lay a solid foundation for future life financial planning.

Patterns of ride sourcing adoption among age groups in three metropolitan cities of Indonesia

This paper aims to investigate the pattern of ride sourcing adoption among different age groups in Indonesia, represented by the three metropolitan regions. Using descriptive analysis and multivariate analysis (Principal Component Analysis), two distinct models were segmented according to age (under 25-year-old and over 25-year-old) and their characteristics that influence ride sourcing adoption were explored. The paper found some interesting patterns. Firstly, the average users of ride sourcing-based goods movement services are women under 25 years old, are college students, live in rented/boarding houses, have a high school degree or equivalent level of education, have 3 to 4 family members, on average have 2 cars and 1 motorcycle per family, have better access to shopping center facilities, educational facilities, restaurant, pharmacies or drug stores, main roads, medical facilities, pedestrian and cyclist facilities, and green open spaces, have a high time allocation for online activities or work/study, and have a high frequency of use of services for the food category before the pandemic. Secondly, comparing both age groups, 4 (four) types of ride sourcing services were formed among the groups in different ways, i.e., parcels; medicine and groceries; non-food; inner-city package and food service grouping were formed among the “under 25 years age” users; while the “above 25 years age” were grouping into users of medicines, groceries, non-food; inner-city parcels and out of the city packages; big parcels and out of the city letters; and foods. Thirdly, in both age group, the services of ride sourcing adoption were significantly correlated with socio-demographic factors like gender, employment status, income level, and ownership of a vehicle. Fourth, in both age group, the services were also positively and significantly impacted by increased time allocated for work and study, outside socializing, and online shopping. In contrast, a greater allocation of out-of-home maintenance had a negative effect. Fifth, in both age group, the services were significantly correlated with the different characteristics of the built environment. However, there were different pattern as well among the two groups such as for those over the age of 25, an increase in income will also result in an increase in service usage across all the services and the usage were in line with the high intensity of work/study from home. On the other hand, the under 25 age group tended to use all services more frequently if they spend more time for work or study.

Non-farm income and environmental efficiency of the farmers: Evidence from India

In the face of various agro-climatic shocks when agricultural income becomes highly volatile, farmers often undertake multiple jobholding and engage in non-farm activities for income smoothing. The earnings from these activities are often used to purchase productivity enhancing agricultural inputs. In this context, the impact of non-farm income on intensification of agricultural inputs and the consequent impact on over-all farm efficiency is well documented in the literature. However, with a rapid rise in usage of agricultural inputs with environmentally detrimental impact, very little is known about whether non-farm income has any impact on farmers’ environmental efficiency-ability to reduce the amount of polluting inputs to the largest extent possible without reducing the amount of agricultural production. Our study fills the gap in the literature by analysing the impact of non-farm income on environmental efficiency of the farmers. We first estimate the environmental efficiency scores adopting the non-parametric data envelopment analysis (DEA) method and using a household level panel data from Village Dynamics of South Asia project on Indian states for a span of five years (2010–2014). We then estimate the impact of non-farm income on environmental efficiency using Instrumental Variable Tobit Model. Our results show that average environmental efficiency of the Indian farmers was 46 % during the study period indicating the fact that a reduction in polluting agricultural inputs by 54 % was possible without compromising the level of farm production. We also find that for 1 % increase in non-farm income, environmental efficiency of farmers rises by around 4 %. This reflects the environment friendly behaviour of farmers as a channel through which non-farm activities affect usage of environmentally linked inputs. These results provide vital policy insights in terms of how non-farm activities could be integrated with policies related to farming, in order to ensure sustainable agricultural practices.

Shocked into side-selling? Production shocks and organic coffee farmers’ marketing decisions

Peru is the world’s leading exporter of organic coffee. Peruvian organic coffee is largely marketed through farmers’ cooperatives which have helped small farmers transition to organic production, earn price premiums over conventional coffee, and access extension services and finance. However, rising temperatures, increasingly volatile rainfall patterns, and the proliferation of pests and diseases make organic production riskier, as organic farmers cannot rely on agrochemicals to protect their farms against production shocks. If members of organic coffee cooperatives respond to production shocks by increasing their sales to private buyers (‘side-selling’), then cooperatives’ financial health could be threatened through reduced bargaining power with buyers and a decrease in scale economies. This paper explores the theoretical incentives for members to side-sell in response to production shocks and gives empirical evidence of how production shocks influence side-selling using panel data from members of two Peruvian specialty coffee cooperatives in 2013 and 2015. The study period coincides with a widespread production shock – the Coffee Leaf Rust (CLR) epidemic of 2012/13 – that decimated coffee production in Peru. We find suggestive evidence that the incidence of CLR on farms is correlated with increased side-selling. Particularly, members with high risk tolerance and high levels of non-coffee income increase side-selling when affected by production shocks. This paper contributes to a growing literature on the determinants of side-selling in agricultural cooperatives by examining the role of production shocks, extending existing theoretical frameworks, and analyzing determinants using panel data methods.

Optimizing the Mulching Pattern and Nitrogen Application Rate to Improve Maize Photosynthetic Capacity, Yield, and Nitrogen Fertilizer Utilization Efficiency.

Residual film pollution and excessive nitrogen fertilizer have become limiting factors for agricultural development. To investigate the feasibility of replacing conventional plastic film with biodegradable plastic film in cold and arid environments under nitrogen application conditions, field experiments were conducted from 2021 to 2022 with plastic film covering (including degradable plastic film (D) and ordinary plastic film (P)) combined with nitrogen fertilizer 0 (N0), 160 (N1), 320 (N2), and 480 (N3) kg·ha-1. The results showed no significant difference (p > 0.05) in dry matter accumulation, photosynthetic gas exchange parameters, soil enzyme activity, or yield of spring maize under degradable plastic film cover compared to ordinary plastic film cover. Nitrogen fertilizer is the main factor limiting the growth of spring maize. The above-ground and root biomass showed a trend of increasing and then decreasing with the increase in nitrogen application level. Increasing nitrogen fertilizer can also improve the photosynthetic gas exchange parameters of leaves, maintain soil enzyme activity, and reduce soil pH. Under the nitrogen application level of N2, the yield of degradable plastic film and ordinary plastic film coverage increased by 3.74~42.50% and 2.05~40.02%, respectively. At the same time, it can also improve water use efficiency and irrigation water use efficiency, but it will reduce nitrogen fertilizer partial productivity and nitrogen fertilizer agronomic use efficiency. Using multiple indicators to evaluate the effect of plastic film mulching combined with nitrogen fertilizer on the comprehensive growth of spring maize, it was found that the DN2 treatment had the best complete growth of maize, which was the best model for achieving stable yield and income increase and green development of spring maize in cold and cool irrigation areas.

Региональные факторы оплаты труда и доходов населения в современной России

This paper evaluates the correlations between wages and household income in the regions of Russia with indicators characterizing capital, human capital and new technologies in the regional economy according to Rosstat data for 2022 and partially for 2023, and constructs econometric models of the most important connections. The level of wages and incomes of the population of the regions can be positively influenced by the capital-labor ratio, the level of education of employed workers and new fixed assets. The capital-labor ratio is the most important factor in the level of wages and income in the regions. The use of labor by workers who have higher education and workers who have secondary vocational education in specialist training programs has a positive impact on the level of wages and incomes of the population of the regions. The use of labor of workers with secondary vocational education under training programs for workers, with secondary general education, basic general education and without education negatively affects the level of wages and income of the population. An increase in population income entails an increase in the level of inequality in income distribution.

The Role Of Digital Economy As A Booster For Increasing Labor Employment And MSMEs Income In Surabaya City

This research aims to determine the role of the digital economy and labour absorption in encouraging an increase in MSMEs income in Surabaya. By taking data from 100 MSMEs in the town of Surabaya using a purposive sampling technique, this research created a survey instrument, which was then processed through descriptive analysis. The research results concluded that the digital economy and employment have a role in increasing the income of MSMEs in Surabaya. This provides evidence that The digital economy has provided great opportunities for creating new jobs, which impacts workforce absorption. The use of digital technology can affect the amount and level of production, which indirectly provides opportunities for labour demand.

Analisis Penentuan Komoditas Unggulan Sektor Pertanian dalam Pengembangan Wilayah: Studi Kasus di Kecamatan Bayah Kabupaten Lebak

Regional development is a partial or comprehensive movement to improve the function of land and the structuring of social, economic, cultural, educational, and welfare of the community to advance the region. The importance of commodities in regional development is closely related to key factors such as economic growth, increase in farmers' income, food security, infrastructure development, economic diversification, natural resource management, increasing competitiveness, and strengthening institutions and policies, all of which contribute to community welfare and environmental sustainability. The goals of superior commodities are to increase local economic growth, increase farmers' incomes, achieve food security, encourage infrastructure development, diversify the economy, manage natural resources sustainably, increase competitiveness in the market, and strengthen institutions and policies that support the agricultural sector. Therefore, it is necessary to research the development of superior commodities in Bayah District with the research title "Determination of Superior Commodities in the Agricultural Sector in Regional Development in Bayah District, Lebak Regency." This research will focus on superior commodities that can encourage economic growth in Bayah District, with the identification of food crop base commodities, analysis of food crop superior commodities, and the formulation of food crop superior commodity development strategies in Bayah District. The research uses Location Quotient (LQ) analysis to find base commodities that can be the main focus in regional development with a superior commodity-based approach. The results of LQ analysis show that the leading commodities in Bayah District are rice and soybeans. However, multicriteria analysis shows that rice has a significant contribution to added value and economic benefits in Bayah District. Based on the results of problem solving, it is concluded that to increase a significant contribution to agricultural development in Bayah District, it is necessary to focus on rice superior commodities to expand the use of agricultural land.

Characteristics and Determinants of Household Food Consumption of Female Vegetable Farmers in Pekanbaru City, Riau Province, Indonesia

Food is a fundamental human need. Food must be provided in sufficient quantity, be of good quality, be safe to consume, and be affordable. Furthermore, the determining factor of household food consumption is income. If income increases, the consumption pattern of nutritious food will also improve. The study aimed to analyze the characteristics of female vegetable farmers, their household food consumption, and the determinants of household food consumption in Pekanbaru City. The research data were obtained through an interview survey, with 65 female vegetable farmers selected using simple random sampling. This study found that female vegetable farmers in Pekanbaru City were of productive age, had a high school education level, and mostly had 3-4 family members. The household food consumption of the participants fulfilled the PPH score target for Pekanbaru City but did not fulfill the national target. Therefore, the household food security of female vegetable farmers in Pekanbaru City has not been achieved nationally. The study further revealed that household income, number of family members, and education of female vegetable farmers were significant determinants of household food consumption. In contrast, the age of female vegetable farmers did not significantly affect household food consumption. Overall, the study highlights the importance of improving the food security of female vegetable farmers in Pekanbaru City by addressing the significant determinants of household food consumption. This can be achieved by implementing policies and programs to increase household income, improve education levels, and reduce family size.

The relationship between income, weight, and using traffic-light labeling to buy processed food in Ecuador.

This paper presents an investigation of the factors influencing the decision to purchase processed food based on traffic-light labeling (TLL). To achieve this, we use data from the official National Survey of Health and Nutrition, which gathered information on 26,532 individuals aged between 19 and 59 between 2011 and 2013. Employing a probit regression to assess the likelihood of buying food based on TLL, we identify a positive association between income level and the probability of buying food based on TLL; indeed, our model suggests that a 1% increase in monthly income increases by 0.008 the probability of buying food based on TLL. We infer that people with higher levels of income are more aware of the benefits of TLL and healthy food habits. Our results also suggest that the probability of basing purchasing decisions on TLL is higher for overweight people compared to those of normal weight, that is, overweight people buy their processed food paying more attention to TLL compared to normal weight people.

Has the Household Old-Age Burden Affected Farm Household Incomes? Evidence from a Survey of Chinese Farm Households

Income increase is an important way to achieve comprehensive human development and to escape from poverty, and the growing aging problem in rural China poses a challenge to farm household income increase. In order to gain a deeper understanding of the impact of China’s rural old-age burden on farm household income, this paper empirically examines the impact and mechanism of household old-age burden on farm household income based on the data from the 2023 micro-farm field survey of China’s Henan Province, utilizing linear regression modeling and mediation effect modeling, filling the research gaps in the related fields. The results of the study found that, firstly, family old-age burden has a significant impact on the income of farm households, and that the heavier the family old-age burden, the lower the total income of farm households. Secondly, from the results of the heterogeneity of the impact, the poorer the health condition, the greater the negative impact of family old-age burden on farm household income. Old-age burden has a greater impact on high-income farm households than on low-income farm households, and old-age burden has a significant impact on the income of part-time farm households, while the impact is not significant on purely farm and non-farm households. Thirdly, the heavier the household old-age burden, the more unfavorable it is to the non-farm employment of farm households, thus affecting the income capacity of farm households. Finally, corresponding countermeasures and recommendations are put forward in three areas, namely, the continuous improvement of the social old-age security system, the realization of the function of the social old-age mechanism as an old-age pocket for key special groups, and the improvement of the social flexible employment mechanism.

Bibliometric analysis of China's high standard farmland construction research based on CNKI

Carrying out the construction of high-standard farmland is an important way to implement the principle of "storing grain in the land and storing grain in the technology", and it is an important practice to implement General Secretary Xi Jinping's principle of food security. The construction of high-standard farmland can speed up the modernization of agriculture, help urbanization development, and realize the efficient use of arable land, scientific management, and guarantee the increase of farmers' incomes. The construction of high-standard farmland is beneficial to the country and the people. Using CNKI database publication year, institutions, authors, publications, journals, cited frequency, keywords and other elements, we systematically sorted out the overview of the research field of high-standard farmland construction in China from 1996 to 2024, and comprehensively analyzed the research dynamics and hotspots in this field. The results show that: at present, China's high standard farmland construction research mainly focuses on the theoretical policy, implementation effect and engineering technology; the organization with the most publications in this field is the newspaper, and the two documents with the highest total citation frequency are Research on the Construction Standards and Models of High-standard Farmland in Chongqing Municipality and Construction Standards of High-standard Farmland, respectively, and Comprehensive Agricultural Development of China is the periodical that publishes the most related documents; in the future, the research hotspots will gradually tend to be zoning construction and high standard farmland construction. The research hotspot gradually tends to zoning construction, ecological construction and other aspects, need to accelerate the research of scientific research institutions on this aspect of the research and key technology integration.

The Yangtze River Delta market integration and farmers ' income increase

Market integration is of great significance to increase farmers' income. Taking 27 core cities in the Yangtze River Delta from 2011 to 2021 as an example, an evaluation index system of market integration including 8 indicators is constructed from three perspectives: regional connection, scientific and technological innovation and environmental regulation, and the entropy method is used to comprehensively evaluate the level of market integration. The measurement results show that the level of market integration in the Yangtze River Delta is still severe, and the internal differences are large. Using two-way fixed effects, it is found that the level of market integration can significantly and positively affect the per capita disposable income of rural residents, and pass the robustness test; heterogeneity analysis found that the level of market integration can significantly positively affect high-level income rural residents, but not significantly affect low-and middle-income rural residents. Suggestions are put forward from the perspectives of optimizing market integration policy, paying attention to middle and low income farmers, and coordinating regional development, so as to provide reference for policy implementation path.

Energy, economic, and environmental impacts of electricity market-oriented reform and the carbon emissions trading: A recursive dynamic CGE model in China

Electricity market-oriented reform and carbon emissions trading, as the main policies implemented in China's power sector, have a profound impact on China's green and low-carbon transition by promoting resource allocation efficiency and internalizing external environmental costs, respectively. Therefore, this paper constructed a dynamic recursive CGE model to measure the energy, economic, and environmental impacts of carbon emissions trading and electricity market-oriented reform from electricity market structure and pricing mechanism. The results show that the two policies have a synergistic effect on industrial structure optimization, energy consumption structure optimization, and carbon emission reduction. Specifically, the share of value-added of the tertiary sector, the growth rate of coal consumption, the share of thermal power consumption, and carbon emissions in 2030 are reduced by 5.70 %, 18.29 %, 2.55 %, and 2.838 trillion tons, respectively, compared with the scenario without carbon emissions trading and electricity market-oriented reform. However, imperfectly competitive market structures outperform perfectly competitive market structures in energy consumption structure and carbon emission reduction. Electricity price regulation is also more beneficial to GDP growth and increase in residential disposable income compared to price liberalization. To this end, returning emission trading scheme revenues to residents can effectively mitigate the adverse impacts caused by market-oriented reforms.

Does Renewable Energy Consumption Have an Effect on Health Expenditures? Example of EU Countries

Due to the harmful effects of traditional energy sources on the environment and health, the consumption of renewable energy sources has recently come to the fore on the world agenda. In order for national economies to maintain their existence, individuals must ensure their health and welfare. In this context, the priority duty of countries should be to protect public health and ensure its sustainability. There are many factors that determine a country's level of healthcare expenditures; environmental conditions are also one of them. The increase in greenhouse gas emissions resulting from the consumption of non-renewable energy sources can pose a great danger to human welfare and the environment. Environmental problems caused by greenhouse gas emissions negatively affect human health in many ways, such as affecting the nervous system, lungs, and causing respiratory diseases. In addition, environmental pollution resulting from greenhouse gas emissions increases health expenditures and causes a decrease in labor productivity. Considering these negative effects, increasing the use of wind, solar, geothermal, and other environmentally friendly energy sources, which are renewable energy sources, will contribute to environmental improvement by meeting the energy needs of countries. Recently, the increase in the resources allocated to health expenditures from the national income of countries has made the discussion of sustainability in the relevant field a current issue. In this respect, researching the factors affecting health expenditures will provide important information to policy makers. This study examines the health expenditures of renewable energy consumption in 13 EU countries (Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, Austria, Spain, Sweden, Italy, Portugal, Greece, Finland, France, and the Netherlands) selected considering data availability between 2000 and 2020 investigating in which direction it affects. In the study, countries with the highest consumption of renewable energy were selected. Since the sustainability of the recently increasing health expenditures is important, the variables of renewable energy consumption and economic growth were analyzed and the subject was limited. In this context, it is believed that the findings will provide important information to policy makers. The main motivation of the study is that there are limited studies on the relevant subject in the literature and panel cointegration and panel cointegration coefficient estimator tests are not used. Obtaining renewable energy consumption and health expenditure data from 2000 to 2020 constitutes the main limitation of the study. As analysis methods, Lagrange multiplier (LM) cointegration and Common Corelated Effect (CCE) cointegration estimator tests were used. Before the application of these tests, cross-sectional dependence and homogeneity were determined. Fourier LM unit root test was used in examining the unit root process. Then, cointegration test and cointegration coefficient estimators, which is the last stage of the application, were determined. According to the panel cointegration coefficient estimation results, in the general analysis conducted for 13 EU countries, the effect of renewable energy consumption on health expenditures is statistically significant at the 10% level. Accordingly, a 1% increase in renewable energy consumption decreases health expenditures by 0.197%. In country-specific studies, the effect of renewable energy consumption on health expenditures was statistically significant and negative in Denmark, Spain, Sweden, and Greece, reducing health expenditures by 0.132%, 0.111%, 1.288%, and 0.782%, respectively. The effect of GDP on health expenditures appears to be statistically significant at the 1% level. Accordingly, a 1% increase in income increases health expenses by 1.071%. In country-based analyses, the coefficients are statistically significant and positive in Germany, Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, France, Spain, Sweden, Italy, Portugal, and Greece. These findings indicate that the increase in environmentally friendly, reusable energy consumption will have a positive impact on the environment, reduce health expenditures and contribute positively to the sustainability of health financing. In addition, it emphasizes that increases in GDP are reflected in health expenditures, thus increasing the quality of health.

Which companies among the SMEs operate in accordance with the Sustainable Development Goals


 
 
 The purpose of the article is to identify the factors that have a significant impact on the decision of SMEs to operate in accordance with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The identification was made on the basis of data collected in December 2022 during a survey of a sample of 303 SMEs from all over Poland. In order to identify the above-mentioned factors, the following were analyzed: type of business, industry to which the primary economic activity of the surveyed company is assigned, age of the company, type of ownership, scope of activity, organizational and legal form, number of employees, average annual net income. Correlation tests confirmed the hypotheses of the relationship between the number of employees and average annual net income and operation in accordance with the SDGs. Further verification of the relationship, performed using a logit model, confirmed that average annual net income and industry are significant variables. There is a relationship between these variables and acting in accordance with the SDGs. The chance of making a decision by a company about operating in accordance with the SDGs increases as the average annual net income increases. The probability of operating in accordance with the SDGs is higher if the company operates in the following industries, i.a.: real estate activities, transportation, financial and insurance, construction, agriculture.
 
 

How an increase in income affects the use of dental care services among a low-income population: evidence from the Finnish basic income experiment

BackgroundPrevious research has shown that the use of dental care services has a significant socioeconomic gradient. Lower income groups tend to use dental care services less, and they often have poorer dental health than higher income groups. The purpose of this study is to evaluate how an increase in income affects the use of dental care services among a low-income population.MethodsThe study examines the causal effect of increasing cash transfers on the use of dental care services by utilizing unique register-based data from a randomized field experiment conducted in Finland in 2017–2018. The Finnish basic income experiment introduced an exogenous increase in the income of persons who previously received basic unemployment benefits. Register-based data on the study population’s use of public and private dental care services were collected both for the treatment group (N = 2,000) and the control group (N = 173,222) of the experiment over a five-year period 2015–2019: two years before, two years during, and one year after the experiment. The experiment’s average treatment effect on the use of dental care services was estimated with OLS regressions.ResultsThe Finnish basic income experiment had no detectable effect on the overall use of dental care services. However, it decreased the probability of visiting public dental care (-2.7% points, -4.7%, p =.017) and increased the average amount of out-of-pocket spending on private care (12.1 euros, 29.8%, p =.032). The results suggest that, even in a country with a universal public dental care coverage, changes in cash transfers do affect the dental care patterns of low-income populations.

PERAN PUSAT PELATIHAN PERTANIAN DAN PEDESAAN SWADAYA DALAM MENINGKATKAN HASIL PRODUKSI DAN PENDAPATAN PETANI HORTIKULTURA STUDI: P4S BULUBALLEA, KECAMATAN TINGGI MONCONG, KABUPATEN GOWA, SULAWESI SELATAN

This study aims to 1) analyze the role of P4S in increasing the production and income of farmers, 2) determine the production and income of horticultural farming and 3) analyze the relationship between the role of P4S with the level of production and income of horticultural farmers in Tinggi Moncong District. This research was conducted with descriptive quantitative method with data collection using survey method conducted in Tinggi Moncong sub-district. The results concluded that 1) the production level of farmers in Tinggi Moncong Sub-district increased by 2-3 tons per hectare after joining P4S, proving that after becoming a member of P4S the productivity and income of farmers increased. 2) From the results of the correlation test using Sperman analysis, the significance value between the facilitator variable and the increase in production and income is 0.685, which indicates a strong relationship between the two variables. For the motivator variable is 0.681, which means that the level of strength of the relationship (correlation) between the motivator variable and the increase in production and income of farmers is at a strong level. From the results of the correlation test using Sperman analysis, the significance value between the facilitator variable and the increase in production and income is 0.685, which indicates a strong relationship between the two variables. For the motivator variable is 0.681, which means that the level of strength of the relationship (correlation) between the motivator variable and the increase in production and income of farmers is at a strong level.

Better Roads, Better Off? Evidence on Upgrading Roads in Tanzania

ABSTRACT Spatial isolation is considered to be one of the main determinants of poverty. Therefore, many transport investments are undertaken with the stated objective of poverty reduction. This paper evaluates the effect of a Tanzanian program that rehabilitated 2,500 km of major roads on rural livelihoods. The analysis uses a large set of variables describing household behavior in order to provide a complete picture of the adjustments. The identification consists of combining a household fixed effects strategy with propensity score matching. Some damaging effects of the program are found on the rural population in the two years following the intervention: the price of rice decreases; households reallocate labor away from agriculture and provide more wage work, but the increase in wage income does not compensate for the loss in agricultural income. Nor do households seem to be benefiting from the fall in the price of rice at consumption level. These results are consistent with rural households facing increased competition due to reduced transportation costs.