Inclusive Masculinities Research Articles

“A Lot of Men Have Definitely Gotten Over the Whole ‘No One Wants to Watch Women’s Sports’ Thing”: Fan Perceptions of the Masculinization of Women’s Soccer Fandom

Recent research on the “feminization” of fandom in men’s sport has considered how fans interpret and respond to the increased presence of women in this masculinized social setting. We explore the converse: the masculinization of fandom in women’s sport, a feminized social setting. Based on interviews with 35 U.S. women’s professional soccer fans in 2019 and 2023, we explore fan perceptions of a greater number of boys and men attending women’s games over time and the meanings they give to this pattern. Themes of ‘beyond the fathers of daughters,’ ‘men’s changing masculinities,’ and ‘masculinization as legitimizing women’s sport’ reveal fan perceptions of men’s growing inclusive masculinities, and thus interest in women’s sport, but also continued gendered power dynamics, with the presence of men fans understood to grant women’s soccer recognition and respect as “real” sport.

A Picture is Worth a Thousand Words: Aging, Inclusive Masculinities, and Media Celebrity

In this essay, I want to engage critically the concept of “inclusive masculinities” to argue that it needs to account for the dimension of age. As part of a third phase of masculinity research that goes beyond the theoretical framework of “hegemonic masculinity” (Connell) to fathom the diversification of forms of masculinity, Eric Anderson deploys “inclusive masculinities” to theorize the proliferation of a plurality of non-vertical, non-hegemonic types of masculinity. These varied types allow for emotional intimacy with friends and physical tactility with other men, embracing activities and objects once coded feminine and, crucially, they eschew violence and bullying. As inclusive as this paradigm of changing masculinities is, it has largely overlooked the dimension of age. Aging men in film, media, and popular culture are typically depicted in a stay of decay and decline, while shifting patterns of masculinity seem to be limited to youth males. My case study for this cross-reading of inclusive masculinities with aging studies is an iconic photograph of two aging celebrity athletes. On September 23, 2022, freelance photographer Ella Ling captured an image of tennis superstars Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal holding hands while sobbing uncontrollably during the tribute paid to the former’s retirement from professional tennis. The photo went viral on social media, and journalists and fans were quick to embrace it as a corrective to what popular discourse refers to as “toxic masculinity.” I will analyze this photo as an iconic picture that captures the masculine zeitgeist of contemporary times. The image of the two male celebrities expressing affection and friendship is all the more significant given that failure in elite sports is usually tied to inability to manage emotions. This photo not only challenges prevailing norms around masculine behavior but also the way young athletes are socialized into sport (privileging hypermasculinity, dominance, and aggression). As a visual positive model of inclusive and of aging masculinities (compared to the infamous images of bravado of younger tennis stars such as Nick Kyrgios and Alexander Zverev), this photo also makes great strides in presenting a forward-looking picture of Iberian aging masculinities. This is particularly crucial for Rafael Nadal’s celebrity brand, which is associated with a traditional form of manhood (his brand logo is “the raging bull” connoting masculinity, strength, and power), and who has been involved in sound polemics regarding his backwards views on gender equality.

"You kind of blame it on the alcohol, but. . .": A discourse analysis of alcohol use and sexual consent among young men in Vancouver, Canada.

There is growing awareness about issues of sexual consent, especially in autonomy-compromising or "non-ideal" contexts, including sex involving alcohol. Understanding the conditions needed for consensual sex to occur in this emergent milieu is critically important, especially for young men (ages 18-30 years) who normatively combine drinking alcohol with sex and are most often perpetrators of sexual violence. This study offers a discourse analysis of young men's alcohol use and sexual consent. Data are drawn from qualitative interviews with 76 young men (including gay, bisexual, queer, and straight men) in Vancouver, Canada, from 2018 to 2021. Informed by Kukla's non-ideal theory of sexual consent and critical and inclusive masculinities, this analysis identified three discursive frames: careful connections, watering it down, and blurred lines. In careful connections young men discussed their efforts to actively promote sexual and decisional autonomy for themselves and their sexual partners when drinking. Yet, in watering it down young men invoked discourses of disinhibition, deflection, and denial to normalize alcohol use as being somewhat excusatory for sexual violence, downplaying the role and responsibility of men. Lastly, men operationalized blurred lines through a continuum of consent and of "meeting (masculine) expectations" when discussing sexual violence and victimization while intoxicated. Together, these discursive frames provide insights into the gendered nature of sexual violence and the extent to which idealized notions of sexual consent play out in the everyday lives of young men who use alcohol with sex. Findings hold philosophical and pragmatic implications for contemporary efforts to scaffold sexual consent.

“There’s No Sewing Classes, There’s No Bedazzling Seminars”: The Impact of Masculinity on Social Connectedness and Mental Health for Men Living in Inner-Regional Australia

Regional Australian masculinities are typified by 'traditional' values (e.g., stoicism, self-reliance) known to restrict social connectedness. Thus, these masculinities have been implicated in worsening men's mental health. What remains unclear, however, is how men living in inner-regional communities (i.e., townships on the fringes of major cities) might uniquely experience masculinity, social connectedness, and mental health. We interviewed 29 boys/men and one non-binary participant (M age = 43.77 years) living in the Macedon Ranges (an inner-regional Australian community). Using reflexive thematic analysis, we generated three themes. Participants described inner-regional masculinities as traditional and rigid, and attributed the Macedon Ranges' comparatively high suicide rate to these masculinities. Conversely, migration from the neighbouring city of Melbourne was implicated in introducing more inclusive masculinities to the area that conflicted with existing masculine norms. Thus, Macedon Ranges men were framed as ultimately lacking a cohesive community identity. Proximity to Melbourne was described as encouraging local men to commute daily for work instead of working locally, thereby further weakening community identity. Overall, these phenomena were implicated in damaging the psychosocial wellbeing of local men via reducing social connectedness. Because men's mental illness is so pervasive within regional Australian communities, these findings have direct implications for policymakers. Namely, policies need to acknowledge that masculinities directly influence mental health and that inner-regional masculinities are impacted by unique place-based considerations distinct from men living in other regional communities.

Interrogating and recuperating masculinities in therapeutic practice

ABSTRACT In this invited commentary I reflect on issues concerning masculinities in therapeutic spaces. I draw on contemporary masculinity concepts as well as the psychonalytic, postmodern and post-qualitative aspects of the various articles. I consider how traditional and modern expectations concerning masculinities create problems and possibilities for men in different situations, for example men from different generations (e.g. me, my father, my son). Similarly, I discuss how therapists might unwittingly [re]construct traditional masculinities in their practice – but are also ideally positioned to deconstruct masculinities which are implicated in their client’s suffering. At the same time, I note that the promotion of healthy, caring and inclusive masculinities need not be confined to the therapy room since there are now various mental health intervention which are community-based, entail peer support and which are tailored to specific constituencies of men.

Students’ Perceptions about Inclusive and Orthodox Masculinities in Contact Sports at a South African University

ABSTRACT In light of recent studies on the changing views on masculinity, this quantitative study aimed to determine the attitudes of South African undergraduate students toward the display of the tenets associated with orthodox and inclusive masculinities in contact sport, and to determine to what extent these attitudes were predicted by students’ gender, race, religiosity, and attitudes toward the importance of primary gender-role sport socialization and homosexuality. Findings, which originated from the data collected through the use of 200 structured interviews, indicated that male and female students endorsed displays of a ‘softening’ in masculinities in sport, and were slightly opposed toward displays of ‘harder’ masculinities, a trend that was strongest among women. The more importance these students’ ascribed to primary gender-role sports socialization, the more likely they were to support the display of orthodox masculinities in sport, and the less likely they were to endorse inclusive masculinities, with the converse being true for those who were more accepting of homosexuality. The study contributes to current theorization in a twofold way: Firstly, by problematizing a simplistic differentiation between orthodox and inclusive masculine typologies in favor of ascribing to theorization that indicates how the attitudes among students of the said South African university campus arguably attest to the concurrent existence of ‘multiple dominant masculinities.’ In-keeping with this, the findings arguably echo the Andersonian emphasis on the co-existence of declining levels of homohysteria among younger persons and the continuing prevalence of homophobia among some students on university campuses.

Inclusive masculinity and Czechia youth

In this, the first investigation of inclusive masculinities among 18- to 19-year-old Czech students, the authors interviewed 19 participants from a rural part of the country. The purpose of this research was to identify attitudes of young, rural, Czech men toward homosexuality and examine for perceived generational difference compared to men who emerged under communism. Results showed evidence of inclusive masculinities for these rural youth based in three principal categories: (1) positive attitudes toward homosexuality; (2) openness to a bromance with a gay male (dependent on gender typicality); and (3) perceived generational differences in gay acceptance compared to their parents’ generation. Overall, results therefore show that young men in this rural part of Czechia are enacting more inclusive forms of masculinity than possible under communist rule.

Fan attitudes towards sexual minorities in German men’s football

ABSTRACT This article investigates German football fans’ attitudes towards homosexuality. Drawing on an anonymous online survey with 212 Germans football fans, this article is the first to empirically investigate attitudes towards homosexuality in German football. Contrary to ongoing claims that German football remains hostile to sexual minorities, 95% of respondents were supportive of same-sex social and legal rights, while 81% espoused support for an ‘out’ gay male professional player. Despite this, however, 90% also believed that homophobia was still a major problem in German football, as evidenced by its hypermasculine environment, lack of out players and the prominence of homosexually themed language at events. While the presence of this language has previously been argued as evidence of pure, undiluted homophobia this research highlights the complexity of this language, and supports calls to recognise intent, context, and effect in the utility of homosexually themed language. This research develops existing work on equality, diversity and inclusion in the context of leisure and fandom. It provides further evidence that narratives regarding sport’s intolerance of homosexuality are outdated. Findings are more progressive than other research on German sport and confirm that German football has become more acceptant of the idea of inclusive masculinities.

Manning the boundaries: unpacking hetereomasculine complexities among Jamaican inner-city boys

ABSTRACT This research paper presents a section of findings from a 3-month qualitative study investigating the gendered practices and lived experiences of four Jamaican adolescent inner-city boys. It embraced a narrative inquiry approach anchored in case studies to document and assess how school and community gendered practices were impacting the boys’ gendered behaviours and evolving masculinities in a post-colonial context. The data collected from semi-structured interviews, video diaries, created graphic novels, and observations revealed that the boys engaged their gendered identities through conformity to heteronormative hegemonic masculine practices, anti-feminine rhetoric, and homophobic epithets. Further, data revealed that they were often replicating school and community heteronormative practices and beliefs. They seemed compelled to conform to hetereomasculine norms even when it conflicted with their personal beliefs. The research concludes that a cultural shift in homohysteria and homophobia is necessary to allow for more inclusive masculinities among young men in inner-city communities.

“The best men can be”

In January 2019, the company Gillette released a short movie “We believe” as advertisement for the brand. In the ad, Gillette reframes their slogan from “the best a man can get” to “the best a man can be.” Connecting the video to the #MeToo movement and critiquing ‘toxic masculinity’, Gillette portrays a new, more responsible, gentle, empathetic masculinity for “the men of tomorrow.” In this article, we present and discuss theories and strands of masculinity studies, and we analyze how the short movie portrays contemporary masculinity vis-à-vis these theories. Our argument is that while Gillette’s short movie and similar branding movies appeal to social responsibility and might open for new and more inclusive masculinities, it does, however, at the same time reproduce the patriarchal organization of masculinity in which power and privilege run from man to man and leave women and children as objects. Furthermore, the recoding of masculinity from toxicity to empathy is framed as an individual choice within neoliberal logics.

Homofobia no futebol masculino: revisão narrativa de literatura

INTRODUÇÃO: O Brasil é conhecido como o país do futebol, que é um campo de encontro de masculinidades regidas pela norma heterossexual, onde dissidentes desse aspecto podem ser marginalizados nesse espaço. OBJETIVO: Dessa forma, este estudo objetivou discutir a homofobia no contexto do futebol. MÉTODOS: Metodologicamente, esta é uma revisão narrativa da literatura, onde foram analisados 6 artigos, 5 em português e 1 em inglês, publicados entre 2012-2018 indexados nas bases de dados Scielo, PEPSIC, BVS e Capes. Os dados coletados foram analisados a partir da elaboração de um protocolo de revisão e posteriormente a partir da técnica Análise de Conteúdo. RESULTADOS: Os resultados foram compilados em cinco categorias: 1) Futebol como contexto de performatividade de masculinidade; 2) Homossexuais no futebol; 3) A homossociabilidade no futebol; 4) Os estádios, a torcida, a linguagem e a mídia; 5) Torcidas queers e inclusão, que discutiram que o futebol é um contexto de performatividade da masculinidade hegemônica do projeto heterossexual, onde homossexuais tem sua participação limitada e/ou banida. CONSIDERAÇÕES FINAIS: Caso desejem participar do esporte, homossexuais precisam se adequar a norma heterossexual, geralmente permanecendo no armário. É permitida a homossociabilidade no futebol como forma de amor ao time e a linguagem é usada como meio onde a violência homofóbica é expressada, mas admite-se que mudanças nesse cenário estão ocorrendo, ainda que a passos lentos, possibilitando a proposta de masculinidades inclusivas. Conclui-se que o futebol representa bem mais do que um esporte, mas um jogo político e um dispositivo da sexualidade, que regula as relações de gênero entre homens.

Male bodybuilders on Instagram: negotiating inclusive masculinities through hegemonic masculine bodies

ABSTRACT Gender is performative and embodied. This is especially apparent when we consider activities such as male bodybuilding, through which men pursue very muscular, hyper-masculine bodies. In this article, we examine the hybridized masculinities practised by male bodybuilders on the objectifying, image-based social media website, Instagram. Contrary to past research, which has almost exclusively characterized male bodybuilders as hegemonically masculine, we reveal ways in which male bodybuilders practise inclusive masculinities on Instagram through emotional expressiveness, emotional intimacy with other men, and extreme self-objectification. We attribute these inclusive masculinities to the cultural movement towards softer masculine ideals, which has been argued to challenge male hegemony. However, we also demonstrate how male bodybuilders continue to project hegemonic masculine dominance, mental strength, and socioeconomic success on Instagram through representations of their lean and muscular bodies. We argue that these hegemonic masculine embodiments operate as forms of ‘hegemonic masculine negotiation’, in that they function to counteract, or compensate for, the inclusive masculinities practised by the male bodybuilders in our study. Our findings demonstrate contemporary ways in which the hegemonic function of dominant masculinities can adjust to, and endure in spite of, the cultural changes that threaten it.

Inclusive Masculinities, Homosexuality and Homophobia in German Professional Soccer

German society and even German soccer have become more acceptant of the idea of inclusive masculinities. Hyper-masculinity is no longer the only paradigm dominating discourses on soccer. Other forms of masculinities have become more accepted in the German public and its soccer community. Nevertheless, two major aspects of homophobia remain part of the German soccer scene. First, homophobic epithets and chants continue to represent a major ingredient of the climate in soccer stadiums. Second, there is the absence of openly homosexual top-level soccer players. So far, no active players in top division German soccer have come out as gay. What explains this contrast between the acceptance of inclusive masculinities and the continued homophobia of the game? This paper analyses discourses on masculinity, homosexuality and homophobia in German professional soccer to address this puzzle. I argue that the increasing commercialization of the game and the efforts of preserving the tradition of the game tend to pull in the same direction and, therefore, reinforce each other. There simply are no large constituencies and advocacy groups that would have strong interests in eradicating homophobia.

A poststructuralist-informed inclusive masculinity theory (PS-IMT): developing IMT to account for complexities in masculinities, using learning to dance Latin and ballroom as an example

ABSTRACT Inclusive Masculinity Theory (IMT) offers an important framework for conceptualizing masculinities within cultures characterized by declining homophobia. But the framework faces several challenges when it theorizes masculinities as relatively stable sets of attitudes and behaviours in the context of complex and dynamic contemporary gender practices and identifications. Offering a solution through a poststructuralist-informed IMT (PS-IMT), we reconceptualize orthodox and inclusive masculinities as discourses that produce subject positions, which may require individuals to work on themselves (‘technologies of self’) to inhabit. Applying PS-IMT to data from a four-year ethnography with young men in a Latin and ballroom UK university dance society, an analysis of the problematic of ‘stiff hips’ is playfully presented as a set of dance steps. Step one shows stiff hip movements embodying orthodox masculinity; step two, an entanglement of orthodox and inclusive masculinities as participants work to loosen their hip movement, enabling immersion in inclusive masculinity in step three; while step four evidenced a reframing of fluid hip movements into a new form of orthodox masculinity. Through these steps we chart complex, dynamic shifts across the fault lines of orthodox and inclusive masculinities, illustrating how PS-IMT offers important directions for masculinities research.

Inclusive masculinities of working-class university footballers in the South of England

While British football has traditionally been a highly homophobic environment, recent years have seen a shift toward inclusivity for sexual minorities. In this semi-structured interview research, I use inclusive masculinity theory (IMT) to frame attitudes toward homosexuality among 20 male, ostensibly heterosexual, working-class footballers. Consistent with other recent IMT studies on working-class masculinities, I show that these young men espouse overwhelmingly positive and inclusive attitudes toward social and legal rights for sexual minorities – and the hypothetical notion of having an openly gay teammate. I also show how sport is integral to these men’s emotionally intimate friendships with one another. Accordingly, this research advances recent findings that young, working-class men are adopting increasingly inclusive dispositions toward the presence of homosexuality in sport.

Investigating the development of masculine identities in physical education

ABSTRACT This research examines the masculine identities and experiences of males within the subject of PE. Specifically, it examines the masculine identities of two groups of boys in the Scottish secondary physical education (PE) context: Secondary 1 (S1: age 12–13) and Secondary 4 (S4: age 15–16). Drawing from Hegemonic Masculinity Theory and Inclusive Masculinity Theory, this research set out to explore how masculine identities co-exist and develop within the same context, building on previous research that has examined masculine identities in the Scottish PE context. To do so, guided by key principles of ethnography and using qualitative methods, S1 and S4 boys were observed in their PE lessons for a period of 3 months. In the third month, four pupils in each class volunteered to take part in semi-structured group interviews. The results from our thematic analysis indicated that both groups performed different masculine identities. The S1 boys that were observed and interviewed adopted inclusive masculinities, where they seemed able to display a range of gendered behaviours without fear of stigmatisation or marginalisation. Conversely, the majority of the S4 boys observed and all of the boys that were interviewed embodied an exclusive form of masculinity, using their bodies to allow them to enact a range of masculine behaviours while maintaining their superior position in the social hierarchy. This article highlights the need for more research into the construction of masculine identities as pupils navigate PE and school. We also suggest that teachers can be more pro-active in maintaining broad, inclusive and critical conceptions of PE as pupils progress from the junior to the senior years.

A want or a need? Exploring the role of grassroots gay rugby teams in the context of inclusive masculinity

ABSTRACT There is a long history of researching the ways that the roles and conceptualizations of gender and sexuality are entwined within sport. More recently, there has been an argument within sociology that homophobia is decreasing across Western sports, supposedly reflecting a decline of homophobia across society more generally and crucially, in a way that suggests cultural spaces have been opened up in which ‘inclusive’ conceptualizations of masculinity can be performed. This project adds to these debates, by bringing inclusive masculinity theory into conversation with research that has begun to recognize the plurality of (particularly urban) gay spaces for the first time. It does so by exploring the motivations behind gay men joining (what was at the time of writing), the most recently formed grassroots UK gay rugby team. The findings suggest that whilst players recognize more inclusive masculinities and a decline in homophobia across society more generally, it is in actual fact amongst the gay community itself that difficulties arise. Playing rugby in a gay-friendly team not only offers a safe space to perform inclusive masculinities, but to embody a more inclusive range of homosexualities as well.

One Small Step for Man: Change and Continuity in Perceptions and Enactments of Homosocial Intimacy among Young Australian Men

While recent scholarship has documented a growth of same-sex, nonsexual kissing among young men in Western societies, this may reflect a weakening, rather than complete transformation, of hegemonic gender structures. Critically engaging with current theorizing of “inclusive masculinities,” this article reports the findings from a study of young Australian men’s views on what constitutes acceptable forms of homosocial intimacy and how they attach meaning to these behaviors. Using qualitative data from focus groups with twenty-two men from five different subcultural peer groups and eight follow-up individual interviews, we illustrate that exaggerated intimate behaviors are not considered authentic displays of affection, and therefore do not meaningfully challenge gendered power structures. Rather, they have been adopted into the repertoire of ways men can perform masculinity. However, this hybridity is neither a means of reconfiguring male power, nor evidence of entirely inclusive masculinities, but instead constitutes an initial step toward inclusivity.

Inclusive Masculinities in Contemporary Football: Men in the Beautiful Game

Inclusive Masculinities in Contemporary Football: Men in the Beautiful Game

The impact of gay friendly cultures on religious expression: a study of inclusive attitudes and behaviours among religious adolescent American male athletes

This article investigates the way attitudes inclusive of homosexuality have proliferated among 11 high school athletes on 1 sporting team, despite those athletes representing various beliefs. Utilizing an in-depth, six-question interview schedule, as well as Huber’s centrality of religion scale (CRS-10), the respondents’ varied religious backgrounds, attitudes towards homosexuality and religiosity are discerned via semi-structured interviews. Results show that these young men reconcile their church’s stances with their own inclusive beliefs, reported ostensibly inclusive environments within their church communities, and articulated their belief in equality through secular discourse. As church communities in inclusive locales deemphasize anti-gay principles and posture inclusivity, young people may maintain religious identities as a function of secularization as declining religious authority. Finally, I discuss the relationship between inclusive masculinities, religiosity and secularization; in doing so, I explore mechanisms by which dominant cultural narratives (in this case, the acceptance of homosexuality) might transform religious expression and religious institutions.