Including Climate Change Mitigation Research Articles

Assembling Multi-Temporal Resilience on the Eastern Coast of India

ABSTRACT This article explores how the Sundarbans residents and migrants on the eastern coast of India build multitemporal resilience. While extreme weather events have different rhythms, local governance, including climate change mitigation policies and state initiatives to manage the aftermaths of extreme weather events, also create temporalities. We analyse how people assemble these temporalities in their quest for more secure livelihoods and housing. By examining two interrelated practices – waiting and establishing patronage relationships – we argue, first, that resilience is not built by isolated individuals or communities; instead, it is relational and multitemporal. Second, we contribute to the questioning of climate reductionism and climate reductionist understandings of resilience by showing that people not only build resilience to climate change impacts and environmental changes but also policies and power structures. Third, we contend that lived resilience is not merely about coping but also encompasses the ability to develop critical discourses and influence governance.

Reconciling the EU forest, biodiversity, and climate strategies.

Forests provide important ecosystem services (ESs), including climate change mitigation, local climate regulation, habitat for biodiversity, wood and non-wood products, energy, and recreation. Simultaneously, forests are increasingly affected by climate change and need to be adapted to future environmental conditions. Current legislation, including the European Union (EU) Biodiversity Strategy, EU Forest Strategy, and national laws, aims to protect forest landscapes, enhance ESs, adapt forests to climate change, and leverage forest products for climate change mitigation and the bioeconomy. However, reconciling all these competing demands poses a tremendous task for policymakers, forest managers, conservation agencies, and other stakeholders, especially given the uncertainty associated with future climate impacts. Here, we used process-based ecosystem modeling and robust multi-criteria optimization to develop forest management portfolios that provide multiple ESs across a wide range of climate scenarios. We included constraints to strictly protect 10% of Europe's land area and to provide stable harvest levels under every climate scenario. The optimization showed only limited options to improve ES provision within these constraints. Consequently, management portfolios suffered from low diversity, which contradicts the goal of multi-functionality and exposes regions to significant risk due to a lack of risk diversification. Additionally, certain regions, especially those in the north, would need to prioritize timber provision to compensate for reduced harvests elsewhere. This conflicts with EU LULUCF targets for increased forest carbon sinks in all member states and prevents an equal distribution of strictly protected areas, introducing a bias as to which forest ecosystems are more protected than others. Thus, coordinated strategies at the European level are imperative to address these challenges effectively. We suggest that the implementation of the EU Biodiversity Strategy, EU Forest Strategy, and targets for forest carbon sinks require complementary measures to alleviate the conflicting demands on forests.

The spatial development of tourism over eight decades: a Horizon 2050 paper

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to show the spatial extent and growth of tourism and its likely patterns as past forces of change are replaced by new pressures to reduce climate change and meet new definitions of success. Design/methodology/approach The approach involves a review of changes that have occurred over the Horizon period with a focus on the spatial spread and development of tourism, using and based on a literature review, past research and personal experience. Likely new developments are identified based on the expected result of influences including climate change mitigation and altered understandings of what is meant by success in tourism. Findings Much of the spatial change in tourism has been evolutionary rather than revolutionary, but in the future, restrictive forces external to tourism may change travel patterns with severe effects on long haul travel and a change in travel mode. Research limitations/implications The research focus needs to produce effective measures of success as understood by all stakeholders in tourist destinations. Alternative destinations will need to replace those long haul destinations no longer available and research needs to refocus on managing rather than solely attracting visitors. Practical implications Long haul destinations will lose market share, destinations will change goals to satisfaction for stakeholders and travel modes will change to lower emission generators. Social implications Destination choice will be reduced, transport modes may be limited and tourism closer to home will become the norm. Originality/value A general overview of this type has not been presented before.

Integration of Renewable Energy and Blue Carbon Ecosystems for Coastal Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation in Indonesia's Oil and Gas Industry

This study investigates the potential of integrating renewable energy and blue carbon ecosystems for coastal climate change mitigation and adaptation in Indonesia's upstream and downstream oil and gas industry. The urgency for the integration is also discussed, including climate change mitigation, energy security, technological innovation, social and environmental justice, and long-term planning and resilience. The study uses Army Design Methodology to identify the key challenges and opportunities of integrating renewable energy and blue carbon ecosystems. The findings suggest that the integration of renewable energy and blue carbon ecosystems can play a crucial role in coastal climate change mitigation and adaptation, particularly in Indonesia's oil and gas industry. The paper concludes with recommendations for further research and policy development in this area.

Assessment of species diversity, biomass and carbon stock of mangrove forests on Belitung Island, Indonesia

Abstract. Henri, Farhaby AM, Supratman O, Adi W, Febrianto S. 2023. Assessment of species diversity, biomass and carbon stock of mangrove forests on Belitung Island, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 24: 6761-6769. Mangroves are highly productive ecosystems that provide important ecosystem services for people and nature, including climate change mitigation. This study analyzed species diversity, biomass value, and estimated carbon stocks in mangrove forest ecosystems on Belitung Island, Indonesia. The data collection method is carried out by creating a linear plot consisting of several circular subplots. Data analysis was carried out to determine the frequency, density, important value index, biomass (above-ground and below-ground biomass), and carbon content. The results of research on mangrove ecosystems on Belitung Island obtained ten species of mangroves dominated by Rhizophora apiculata Blume found in all research sites. The density of mangroves in the four locations (>1,500 trees/ha) is very dense. In contrast, the location in Juru Seberang (1,349 trees/ha) is categorized as moderate because it is the location of previous reforestation. Rhizophora apiculata has an important value index at the tree (161.24%) and sapling (149.24%) levels. Mangroves on Belitung Island have a total biomass value (225.08 t ha-1), estimated carbon content (112.54 t C ha-1), and carbon dioxide (CO2) absorption of 413.02 t CO2 ha-1. Sustainable coastal ecosystem management can significantly reduce carbon emissions from the land use sector and maintain ecosystem services in these coastal habitats, considering Belitung Island as one of the archipelago areas.

Biodiversity management policy in indonesia

The study examines policies for managing biodiversity in Indonesia from 1990-2020. The study uses evaluation research, especially regulatory impact analysis (RIA), with a qualitative approach. The objects of this research are ten regulatory documents in the form of laws that have received stipulations and various relevant national government commitment actions. The analysis process uses the RIA technique, which includes analysis of strategic problems in biodiversity management and regulatory analysis through the comparison of policy content with issues of public interest, including climate change mitigation, welfare, empowerment, intergovernmental relations, and others. The results: 1) The issue of damage and reduction of biodiversity in Indonesia is high; 2) The government’s partiality through laws reflects limited focus and required actions, minimal regulation of responsibilities across sectors and between institutions (government and non-government), weak sanctions; 3) The law has not placed the community/stakeholders outside the government as subjects in biodiversity management, the government still dominates it. The study contributes to improving the quality of regulations. Public costs can be minimized in the context of policy revisions; on the content side of regulatory revisions, it can suppress lost resources, protect the environment from damage, and mitigate climate change.

HIGHER EDUCATION ROLES TO SUPPORT CLIMATE CHANGE MITIGATION

Climate change has become an issue that affect every aspect of our lives, including in food security and economic matters. Climate change mitigation plays a key role to prevent the worst impact of climate change. Higher education can take a role on university-based mitigation action in reducing local emission by promoting service-learning approaches that include climate change mitigation. This paper aims to explore the role of higher education to support climate change mitigation to achieve tangible local benefits in facing climate change. This research uses a systematic literature review method related to climate change mitigation in higher education. This paper illustrating the role of higher education to support climate change mitigation by using service-learning approach and creating climate change governance networks. Higher Education Institution as an organization with significant impact toward local community can act as catalyst for sustainable development system. Higher education institution needs to regulate and renew energy systems and reorganize transportation system in order to reduce CO2 emissions and communicate message to higher education community to support climate change mitigation actions in personal level.

Factors motivating residents of flood-prone areas to adopt nature-based solutions for flood-risk reduction

Nature-based solutions (NbS) are promising measures for protecting, sustainably managing, and restoring ecosystems as well as addressing societal challenges, including climate change mitigation and adaptation. To consider mainstream NbS for use in disaster risk reduction (DRR) infrastructures, the affected residents' perception and attitude toward NbS are key factors. This study analyzes the attitude of residents in flood-prone areas toward three types of NbSs for addressing flood risk reduction: kasumitei, retarding basins, and flood-protection forests. In addition, the protection motivation theory and structural-equation modeling (SEM) were employed to examine factors influencing residents' desire for NbS from comprehensive explanatory variables. A total of 1828 samples were collected through postal mail survey. The results support the tested hypothesis, that is, individual attributes and perceptual/social factors affecting the participants' desire for the three NbS through flood-threat and coping appraisals. The perception of response efficacy, including effectiveness against flood and other natural benefits from NbS, strongly affect the respondents' desire for NbS, while the perception of disadvantages display a negative effect. Moreover, SEM was used to integrally analyze the different explanatory factors and identify those that could enhance people's desire for NbS, such as the perceived presence of local NbS, cognition of recent increase in flood events, past flood experience, gender, and social capital. These findings can help identify effective and practical methods for enhancing residents' understanding and desire for NbS, including the opportunity to learn about local and authentic NbS, with various benefits as well as interactive communication on NbS for DRR.

Assessing ambitious nature conservation strategies in a below 2-degree and food-secure world

Global biodiversity is projected to further decline under a wide range of future socio-economic development pathways, even in sustainability-oriented scenarios. This raises the question how biodiversity can be put on a path to recovery, the core challenge for the implementation of the CBD Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework. We designed two ambitious global conservation strategies, ‘Half Earth’ (HE) and ‘Sharing the Planet’ (SP), and evaluated their ability to restore terrestrial and freshwater biodiversity and to provide nature's contributions to people (NCP), while also limiting global warming below 2 degrees and ensuring food security. We applied the integrated assessment framework IMAGE with the GLOBIO biodiversity model, using the ‘Middle of the Road’ Shared Socio-economic Pathway (SSP2) with its projected human population growth as baseline. We found that the HE strategy performs generally better for terrestrial biodiversity (biodiversity intactness (MSA), Area of Habitat, Living Planet Index, Red List Index) in currently still natural regions. The SP strategy yields more improvements for biodiversity in human-used areas, for freshwater biodiversity and for regulating NCP (pest control, pollination, erosion control, water quality). However, both strategies were insufficient to restore biodiversity and corresponded with considerable increases in food security risks and global temperature. Only when we combined the conservation strategies with a portfolio of ‘integrated sustainability measures’, including climate change mitigation and reductions of food waste and animal product consumption, our scenarios resulted in a restoration of biodiversity and NCP while keeping global warming below two degrees and food security risks below the baseline projection.

The possibility of greenhouse gas emissions reduction from the dairy cattle farms

Dairy cattle have a significant share in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Therefore, due to the growing demand for milk and milk products, it is worth looking for solutions to effectively reduce the environmental impact of dairy farming. The article reviews the literature on the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from dairy farms through dietary interventions. Significant reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from dairy farms can be achieved by optimizing dairy cattle and the use of various feed additives. Silvo-pastoralism systems are also important for their ecosystem services, including climate change mitigation.

Inorganic CO2 conversion through reaction with concentrated reject brine: Polymorphic characteristics of intermediate carbonate salts

In recent times, various types of water purification plants have been employed to produce clean water from seawater, as a means to overcome water deficit problems. However, this process results in the production of highly concentrated reject brine solutions, which can cause significant environmental and ecological problems due to their high ionic concentration when released into the near-shore area without treatment. Conversely, these reject brine solutions can be regarded as a promising reactant for providing metal cations during the conversion of CO2 into inorganic materials, rather than treating them as wastewater. This study proposes a CO2-based post-treatment process for desalinated reject brine and investigates the relationship between the ionic concentration of the reject brine solution and the polymorphic properties of inorganic compounds produced by the reaction between metal cations and CO2. The polymorphic properties of metal carbonates were investigated with respect to the gradual changes in the concentration of the reject brine solution through dilution and concentration. As a result of this study, the degree of reaction inhibition was found to be based on the concentration of the reject brine solutions, and these results can be applied in multidisciplinary areas, including climate change mitigation, post-treatment of desalinated brine, and advanced materials and resource production.

Deterrence through punishment can resolve collective risk dilemmas in carbon emission games.

Collective risk social dilemmas are at the heart of the most pressing global challenges we are facing today, including climate change mitigation and the overuse of natural resources. Previous research has framed this problem as a public goods game (PGG), where a dilemma arises between short-term interests and long-term sustainability. In the PGG, subjects are placed in groups and asked to choose between cooperation and defection, while keeping in mind their personal interests as well as the commons. Here, we explore how and to what extent the costly punishment of defectors is successful in enforcing cooperation by means of human experiments. We show that an apparent irrational underestimation of the risk of being punished plays an important role, and that for sufficiently high punishment fines, this vanishes and the threat of deterrence suffices to preserve the commons. Interestingly, however, we find that high fines not only avert freeriders, but they also demotivate some of the most generous altruists. As a consequence, the tragedy of the commons is predominantly averted due to cooperators that contribute only their "fair share" to the common pool. We also find that larger groups require larger fines for the deterrence of punishment to have the desired prosocial effect.

Evolving conceptions of silvopasture among farmers and natural resource professionals in Wisconsin, USA

Silvopasture has gained attention as an agroecological practice that may simultaneously meet farmer goals and provide environmental benefits, including climate change mitigation. At the same time there are significant concerns about the potential for livestock to damage trees and forest soils. Like other innovative agroecological systems, silvopasture combines management complexity with limited research knowledge. Unlike annual crops, the effects of silvopasture management can take decades to assess and require forestry as well as agronomic expertise. We conducted mixed-methods research on silvopasture attitudes and knowledge among farmers, agricultural advisors, and foresters in Wisconsin between 2014 and 2019. We asked: (1) How do farmers who practice grazing, agricultural advisors, and foresters perceive silvopasture? and (2) How did coverage of silvopasture change between 2009 and 2019 in a popular grazing publication? Perceptions of silvopasture were influenced by recent weather history, markets for forest and agricultural products, existing land uses, and other contextual factors. Some farmers and agricultural advisors were committed to silvopasture despite significant obstacles to implementing the practice. Over the course of the study period agricultural advisors increased their willingness to provide silvopasture advice to farmers and professional colleagues, and coverage of silvopasture increased in a popular grazing publication. Finally, a multi-county supportive community of practice was associated with greater enthusiasm for the practice. The greater acceptance of silvopasture among resource professionals follows an increase in silvopasture research and outreach in the region. This interest in silvopasture suggests both a need for, and openness to, greater collaboration among forestry and agricultural professionals and farmers to develop sustainable silvopasture standards.

Modeling Soil Organic Carbon at Coastal Sabkhas with Different Vegetation Covers at the Red Sea Coast of Saudi Arabia

Healthy coastal sabkhas (sabkha is an Arabic term for a salt flat) offer plenty of ecosystem services including climate change mitigation. However, fewer research studies were conducted at coastal sabkhas compared to other coastal marshes. This study was conducted in a total of ten coastal sabkha sites with different vegetation covers along the southern Red Sea coast of Saudi Arabia. The main objectives were to model and predict the distribution of volumetric soil organic carbon (SOC) density (kg C/m3) and cumulative SOC stocks (kg C/m2) using three different mathematic functions (allometric, exponential, and sigmoid) based on sampled and observed soil carbon (C) data (total of 125 soil cores = 1250 soil samples). Sigmoid function showed the greatest fit for predicting the distribution of volumetric SOC density over soil profile depth with mean Adj. R2 = 0.9978, 0.9611, and 0.9623 for vegetation cover of >25–50, >50–75, and >75–100%, respectively. For modeling the cumulative SOC stocks, both validation indices and p of the t-test confirmed that using the exponential function is the most appropriate to be used for predicting the SOC stock among different vegetation covers. Moreover, assessing the topsoil concentration factors (TCFs) showed that the distribution of the SOC content is impacted to a great extent by the vegetation cover at coastal sabkhas. Sampling the soil parameter of interest to estimate the SOC stocks is constrained by time and cost. Therefore, using the exponential function for predicting the distribution of cumulative SOC stocks at coastal sabkhas over soil profile depth is appropriate and promising for mapping SOC stocks at both regional and global spatial scales.

Combining scientific and local knowledge improves evaluating future scenarios of forest ecosystem services

Forest scenario analysis can help tackle sustainability issues by generating insight into the potential long-term effects of present-day management. In northern Sweden, forests provide important benefits including climate change mitigation, biodiversity conservation, reindeer husbandry, local livelihoods, and recreation. Informed by local stakeholders’ views on how forests can be enabled to deliver these benefits, we created four forest management scenarios: the close-to-nature scenario (CTN) which emphasises biodiversity conservation, the classic management scenario (CLA) optimising the forests’ net present value, the intensified scenario (INT) maximising harvested wood from the forest, and the combined scenario (COM) applying a combination of measures from the CTN and INT. The scenarios were applied to the local forest landscape and modelled over a 100-year simulation period, and the results of the modelling were then evaluated by a diverse group of stakeholders. For most ecosystem services, there was a time lag of 10–50 years before noticeable effects and differences between the scenarios became evident, highlighting the need to consider both the short- and long-term effects of forest management. Evaluation by the stakeholders put the modelled results into a local context. They raised considerations relating to wildlife and hunting, climate change risks, social acceptability, and conflict, highlighting the value of evaluating the scenarios qualitatively as well as quantitatively. Overall, stakeholders thought that the CTN and CLA scenarios promoted more ecosystem services and posed fewer climate risks, while also creating less conflict among stakeholders. Our results emphasise the value of combining scientific and local knowledge when developing and evaluating future forest scenarios.

Low-carbon transition risks for India’s financial system

As the low-carbon transition accelerates, loans to and investments in carbon-intensive assets, firms and sectors are at risk of not generating the anticipated returns, with implications for individual financial institutions as well as financial markets more broadly. However, research on this topic has largely been focused on high- and upper-middle income economies to date. In this paper, we explore the salience of this issue in India – one of the world’s largest emitters and economies – by asking: (1) how extensive is financial-sector exposure to transition risks? And: (2) are finance professionals and financial institutions taking sufficient action to manage those transition risks? Our findings reveal that India’s financial sector is much more heavily exposed to low-carbon transition risks than standard borrowing classifications might suggest. For example, our granular assessment of individual loans and bonds finds that three-fifths of lending to the ‘mining’ sector is for oil and gas extraction, while one-fifth of ‘manufacturing’ debt is for petroleum refining and related industries. We also find that electricity production – by far the largest source of emissions – accounts for 5.2% of outstanding credit, but that only 17.5% of this lending is to pureplay renewables. Yet our survey of India’s largest financial institutions suggests that there have been limited efforts to identify, measure or manage low-carbon transition risks. Fewer than half of the 154 finance professionals surveyed were familiar with environmental issues including climate change mitigation and adaption, greenhouse gas emissions or transition risks. Only four of the ten major financial institutions surveyed collect information on ESG risks, and these firms do not systematically incorporate that data into business continuity planning, internal capital adequacy assessment processes, credit risk assessments, enterprise risk management frameworks or loan product pricing. Given extensive financial-sector exposure to low-carbon transition risks coupled with the absence of bottom-up action to manage those risks, our findings suggest that financiers, regulators and policymakers in emerging and developing economies should be acting swiftly to ensure an orderly transition to net-zero.

Woody Species Diversity and Biomass Carbon Sequestration in Private Residential Green Infrastructure of Dilla Town, Southern Ethiopia

Urban forests have an important role in biodiversity conservation, environmental improvement, and ecosystem services including climate change mitigation enhancement. The objectives of the current study were to: assess plant types and management strategies of the owners; woody species’ composition, structure, and diversity; and estimate aboveground biomass of trees and associated carbon stock in private residential green infrastructure (PRGI) at Dilla town. This study was conducted at three kebeles, the lowest administrative unit in Ethiopia. Ninety-four households were randomly selected from a proportional sample size for each kebele. A complete inventory of woody species was done after measuring the area occupied by plants at each household. At plot level, the aboveground biomass of sampled trees was calculated by using an allometric biomass equation developed for agroforestry species. Diversity was described by using different indices The free software EstimateS 9.1.0 was used to generate data for the construction of sample-based rarefaction curves and SPSS version 20 for descriptive statistics. Based on plant types and arrangement, the households manage their PRGI in 15 categories on area size, ranging from 10 m2 to 1229 m2, with an average holding size of 207.5 m2. A total of 66 plant species belonging to 45 families were identified. Overall, a total of 1220 stem ha−1 contributed to an aboveground carbon stock of 64.35 ton ha−1 of which 50.4% is from fruit trees and the rest from timber trees. The results suggest that PRGIs can serve as reservoirs of non-native and native plant species, including five native tree species currently facing conservation concerns.

Economic potential and management of tropical mixed-species plantations in Central America

Tropical forest plantations play an important role in meeting global wood demand. While research has highlighted the ecological potential of mixed-species plantations, studies on the economic viability and management of such plantations are largely missing in the context of tropical plantation forestry. In this study, we estimated the economic potential and optimized the management of commercial mixed-species plantations of four tree species native to Central America (Dalbergia retusa, Dipteryx oleifera, Hieronyma alchorneoides, and Vochysia guatemalensis) and Teak (Tectona grandis). We combined the forest growth model 3-PGmix and detailed economic data for two plantation sites in Costa Rica to optimize the management of 11 different mixtures using a genetic optimization algorithm. We found that several of the modeled mixed-species stands can be highly profitable with net present values (NPV) up to 4821.2 USD/ha at an 8% discount rate, and internal rates of return up to 17% (under excellent site conditions). This indicates that the most profitable mixtures (e.g. of V. guatemalensis-D. oleifera or T. grandis-D. oleifera on excellent sites) could compete economically with conventional monoculture plantations such as Teak monocultures. Further, mixed stands can be managed based on the same simple even-aged management approaches currently applied in monoculture plantations if the specific management parameters are adapted. The optimized management parameters also lead to improved NPV of the modeled stands under alternative valuation assumptions but are site-specific. In the present study, we only considered financial benefits from timber production. However, establishing mixed-species plantations in the tropics could provide a wide range of ecosystem services including climate change mitigation and biodiversity protection.

Prospective life cycle assessment for designing mobile thermal energy storage system utilizing zeolite

The decarbonization of industrial heat, especially utilization process heat over 100 °C, is important for the transition to a sustainable society, including climate change mitigation and the transition to a circular economy . This study focused on a mobile thermal energy storage system for industrial use using a zeolite water vapor adsorption and desorption cycle that can utilize waste heat not only in space but also over time, and a prospective life cycle assessment (LCA) to design the system and provide feedback for further development. A numerical model was developed to predict the performance of the system using a moving bed indirect heat exchange system as the heat-discharging system and a moving bed countercurrent contact system as the heat-charging system, coupled with mass, energy, and momentum conservation equations for obtaining the foreground data for the prospective LCA. A prospective LCA was conducted to calculate greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) and resource consumption. The results showed that the m-TES reduces lifecycle GHG, and there are conditions for zeolite flow rates that minimize GHG emissions. It was also found that the resource consumption of m-TES increases as the system size increases, but is less than that of batteries. The hot spots are the fuel-saving effect at the heat-discharging side, auxiliary power at the heat-charging side, and the zeolite manufacturing stage. • A mobile thermal energy storage using zeolite was designed by numerical analysis. • A prospective LCA provides feedbacks to further development required. • There are conditions for zeolite flow rates that minimize lifecycle greenhouse gas. • Abiotic resource consumption is lower than other energy storage.

Mainstreaming Smart Agroforestry for Social Forestry Implementation to Support Sustainable Development Goals in Indonesia: A Review

The increasing need for forest resources and cultivated land requires a solution in forest management to realize sustainable land use. Smart agroforestry (SAF) is a set of agriculture and silviculture knowledge and practices that is aimed at not only increasing profits and resilience for farmers but also improving environmental parameters, including climate change mitigation and adaptation, biodiversity enhancement, and soil and water conservation, while assuring sustainable landscape management. SAF, a solution for land management systems to reduce the rate of deforestation, is a smart effort to overcome the food crisis and mitigate climate change that is prospectively applied mainly in the social forestry area. Optimized forest land utilization could be achieved by implementing SAF and applying silvicultural and crop cultivation techniques to optimize productivity and meet sustainability and adaptability goals. This paper reviews the existing conditions, opportunities, and challenges in the mainstreaming of SAF in social forestry implementation to support the Sustainable Development Goals in Indonesia. Mainstreaming SAF should include policy innovation and regulation implementation, the use of appropriate technology, and compromises or trade-offs among benefits, risks, and resources. SAF is a strategy to revive the rural economy and community prosperity through the optimal use of local resources as well as a form of smart landscape and land-use management that has significant roles in soil and water conservation, bioenergy, climate change responses, and enhanced biodiversity conservation.