Incidental Learning Research Articles

Effects of Assisted Tools and Learning Conditions on L2 Vocabulary Learning: A Study based on Large Language Model

In this study, we investigated the effects of assisted input, namely gloss and dictionary, on L2 incidental vocabulary learning. Furthermore, intentional and incidental learning conditions were also compared while merely utilizing a dictionary. Additionally, the gloss material was provided by a large language model (LLM) ChatGPT through prompt engineering. Besides, learning gains were measured not only solely from knowledge breadth (form-meaning connection) but also from more dimensions regarding knowledge depth (synonym discrimination, derivation production, collocation production). Sixty-four English learners of grade 2 from a senior high school were divided into three treatment groups and one control group. Those two kinds of comparisons were made respectively between every three groups. Results indicated that the gloss provided by LLM showed efficiency in collocation retention while the dictionary brought better effects in derivations and synonym discrimination. Furthermore, intentional learning may exert a good role in the long-term retention of knowledge depth and enhanced synonym discrimination effectively. The results are discussed along with students’ feedback from the questionnaire.

The Effect of Audio-Assisted Reading on Incidental Learning of Present Perfect by EFL Learners

Abstract This study applies audio-assisted reading (AAR), a technique that provides multimedia input, to encourage incidental learning of the present perfect tense. The decision to choose this tense was informed by previous studies, which have shown that its multifunctional nature presents EFL learners with considerable challenges. Thirty-four Iranian EFL learners recruited through convenience sampling participated in this eight-week-long research. The learners were assigned to the experimental and control groups. The experimental group received the AAR instruction while the control group received reading-only instruction. The analysis of the data collected through pre-test, post-test, and delayed post-test indicated that the learners not only learned the target grammar structure significantly better through AAR, but also retained it longer. The findings of the study and the implications for language teaching and learning are discussed.

Podcasts and Informal Learning: Exploring Knowledge Acquisition and Retention

This study explores how podcasts’ accessibility fosters learning, examining listener engagement, content preferences, and the unique educational opportunities they offer. With the rise of digital audio platforms, podcasts have emerged as a significant medium for acquiring knowledge outside formal educational settings. Using an online survey, data were collected from 605 respondents, who were predominantly young and well educated, to understand their podcast listening habits and the extent of informal learning. The study categorizes informal learning into self-directed, incidental, and tacit learning. Results show that more than half of respondents engage in self-directed learning, while a third participate in incidental learning, indicating that podcasts serve as effective tools for intentional and unintentional knowledge acquisition. ANOVA analysis reveals that self-directed learners exhibit higher information retention and critical evaluation skills compared to tacit learners. Additionally, trust in podcast content is significantly higher among educated listeners. The study concludes that while podcasts are valuable for learning and professional development, there is a need for enhanced digital literacy to improve critical appraisal skills among listeners. These findings provide insights into the cognitive processes involved in podcast-based learning and suggest practical strategies for educators and content creators to enhance the educational impact of podcasts.

Beware of What Lurks in the Margin: Glosses, Mobile Digital Games, and Incidental Vocabulary Learning

Beware of What Lurks in the Margin: Glosses, Mobile Digital Games, and Incidental Vocabulary Learning

No Incidental Memory Advantage for Mixed Handed vs. Consistent Right Handed Participants: Conflicting Results From Earlier Research.

Individuals who vary their preferred hand when performing different types of manual activities, so-called mixed handers (MH), have been frequently reported to outperform individuals with a consistent (right) hand preference (cRH) on tasks assessing declarative-memory functions. For example, in one influential study, this MH advantage extended to incidental learning from presumed "deep" semantic processing of verbal stimuli but not from "shallow" phonemic or structural processing. In the present study, we aimed to replicate this research finding in two separate participant samples. First, in a pre-registered and sample-size planned experiment we confronted 49 participants (23 MH; 26 cRH) with "phonemic" and "semantic" word evaluation tasks (using a within design), followed by a surprise delayed recognition test. In a second experiment, we repeated the same procedure with 65 other participants (31 MH, 34 cRH). A mixed-effect analyses of variance found a significant main effect of Encoding Condition (phonemic vs. semantic tasks) in both experiments (effect size: ηp2 = .81 to .85), indicating the classical level-of processing effect with higher recognition hits and sensitivity (d') for words that followed semantic versus phonemic encoding. However, the predicted interaction effect of Encoding Condition with Handedness Group was not statistically significant for either sample (all ηp2 < .03), nor was the main effect of Handedness Group. Thus, our findings conflicted with those of the original study in two independent samples. As we had sufficient statistical power to be confident in our failure to detect a genuine group difference, we cannot confirm the previously reported MH over cRH advantage in incidental learning of verbal material. We discuss possible reasons for these contradictory results and the theoretical implications of this discovery.

Creating a City for All of Us: The Possible Role of the Fediverse in Archiving Civic Urban Memory

This paper attempts to build a case for adopting the model of the Fediverse to archive digital citizen-generated urban memory. Examining literature from several relevant fields of debate acts as a pragmatic foundation for reasoning to then outline potential core technical functionality for provision of such an archive, using the Mastodon app as an example. This ‘civic urban memory’ archive is considered as open, curated by citizens themselves and owned by them through civic public ownership in a context of technological sovereignty. Reflecting on issues of citizen self curated and moderated memory collection archives, and the potential for opt-in or anonymous archive posting may offer some mechanisms for fair and open curation, moderation and privacy protection in such archives. Conceptual backdrop for a civic urban memory archive is placed in current debates concerning civic technological platforms acting as a digital public good in a context of a techno-social contract for learning, with a co-constructed shared civic urban memory forming part of open incidental lifelong learning in a future learning city.

Metalinguistic explanations and their impact on incidental grammar acquisition: An eye-movement study

Recent research highlights the value of metalinguistic explanations in facilitating second language (L2) grammar acquisition. Nevertheless, a notable research gap persists regarding how these explanations influence incidental grammar acquisition and their impact on overall reading processes and comprehension. Furthermore, whether the potentially positive effects of metalinguistic explanations transfer to the acquisition of subsequent constructions without explicit guidance is an unexplored domain. This study addresses these research gaps by recruiting 42 Korean undergraduate students and assigning them to the metalinguistic or baseline groups. The metalinguistic group read an English text supplemented with bottom-margin metalinguistic explanations, which elucidated the first half of the target grammar (without explanations for the second half), whereas the baseline group read the same text without explanations. This study used eye-tracking technology to register participants’ eye movements during reading, followed by an announced reading comprehension test and an unannounced error correction test. Statistical analyses using linear mixed-effects models (LMMs) and t-tests revealed that metalinguistic explanations significantly enhanced incidental grammar acquisition in L2 learners without compromising overall reading processes and comprehension. However, the benefits of metalinguistic explanations in the metalinguistic group failed to extend to the incidental learning of other unexplained constructions.

Facilitating Incidental Vocabulary Learning: The Effects of Bimodal Presentation and Lexical Elaboration

Facilitating Incidental Vocabulary Learning: The Effects of Bimodal Presentation and Lexical Elaboration

Fast readout of identity-related information in multiple images after incidental learning

Fast readout of identity-related information in multiple images after incidental learning

Incidental learning in EFL learners’ vocabulary accumulation: the lens of dual process theory

PurposeDrawing on dual process theory as the overarching framework, this study investigates how different types of incidental vocabulary learning yield different performance, repetition, and continuance intention outcomes and uncovers the underlying mechanism.Design/methodology/approachWe identify four popular types of incidental learning: traditional, a murder mystery game, noneducational live streaming, and VTuber. We propose that the underlying mechanism is the mediating role of perceived novelty as heuristic processing, and effort and performance expectancy as systematic processing. We conduct a between-subject experiment with four groups for the four types of incidental learning. From a total of 220 subjects, 55 valid responses were collected from each group. Analysis of variance and a partial least squares structural equation model are employed to examine the differences and mechanism.FindingsThe results show that noneducational live streaming performs significantly best for all three outcomes. The mechanism test demonstrates that perceived novelty and performance expectancy play significantly positive mediating roles, whereas effort expectancy has a null mediating effect.Originality/valueThe research provides both theoretical and practical implications.

The impact of task guidance on incidental collocation learning from task-based reading

This study explored how to promote incidental collocation learning from task-based reading. In this study, 101 Cantonese speakers read three English texts that contained 12 target collocations. Playing a role as an editor of a magazine, participants were asked to determine if the three texts were acceptable to be published in the next issue. While half of the participants (– Guidance, n = 50) were asked to simply accept or reject the texts after reading, the other half (+ Guidance, n = 51) received task guidance that contained a list of specific reviewing criteria. Participants’ eye-movements were recorded during the editor task, and 10 participants from each condition were asked to produce stimulated recalls while viewing their eye-movements. The rest of the participants’ ( n = 81) knowledge about the target collocations was measured with form recall and recognition tests immediately and two weeks after the task. The results revealed that task guidance led to greater fixation durations and counts on the target collocations, as well as improved performances in the immediate posttest. The stimulated recalls further indicated that task guidance encouraged more goal-oriented reading. The findings underscore the importance of careful task design to promote incidental collocation learning from reading.

Knowing where to go: Spatial memory guides eye and body movements in a naturalistic visual search task.

Most research on visual search has used simple tasks presented on a computer screen. However, in natural situations visual search almost always involves eye, head, and body movements in a three-dimensional (3D) environment. The different constraints imposed by these two types of search tasks might explain some of the discrepancies in our understanding concerning the use of memory resources and the role of contextual objects during search. To explore this issue, we analyzed a visual search task performed in an immersive virtual reality apartment. Participants searched for a series of geometric 3D objects while eye movements and head coordinates were recorded. Participants explored the apartment to locate target objects whose location and visibility were manipulated. For objects with reliable locations, we found that repeated searches led to a decrease in search time and number of fixations and to a reduction of errors. Searching for those objects that had been visible in previous trials but were only tested at the end of the experiment was also easier than finding objects for the first time, indicating incidental learning of context. More importantly, we found that body movements showed changes that reflected memory for target location: trajectories were shorter and movement velocities were higher, but only for those objects that had been searched for multiple times. We conclude that memory of 3D space and target location is a critical component of visual search and also modifies movement kinematics. In natural search, memory is used to optimize movement control and reduce energetic costs.

English Learners’ Belief and Investment in English Pronunciation Learning

Apprehensive pronunciation is crucial for learners' language competence and is an integral aspect of language instruction. Although English major students in China demonstrate improvement in their overall English proficiency when they enter university, many still struggle with their English pronunciation. Scholars have identified several internal and external factors that influence English pronunciation learning. However, little attention is given to the role of learners’ beliefs and investment as possible factors that influence English pronunciation learning, which in turn affect the learning approach and learning strategy used. To fill the gap, the current study adopts a qualitative design with multiple case studies to explore students’ beliefs, investments, and the relationship between these two concepts within the normative, meta-cognitive and contextual approach as well as investment theory. A semi-structured interview was conducted on three university students with different language abilities. The data obtained was analysed using NVivo 12 software. The findings of the study indicate that middle and high-level participants held positive perceptions, while low-level participants held negative perceptions in terms of English pronunciation learning. The study also reveals two forms of investment; diverse investment and incidental learning. In addition, the relationship between students’ beliefs and investments exhibited complex phenomena such as positive and negative congruence as well as incongruence. Based on these findings, some pedagogical implications and areas for ongoing research were proposed.

Leveraging Social Media for Language Acquisition: Exploring How High School Students Use Facebook for English Language Learning (ELL)

This study investigates how high school students utilize Facebook to enhance their English language skills. Through interviews and content analysis, the research explores how Facebook exposes students to diverse English content, from news articles to social interactions. This exposure fosters incidental language learning, improving grammar, vocabulary, and current event awareness. Furthermore, Facebook facilitates communication skill development through casual interactions with other English speakers. However, the spread of misinformation and informal language use necessitates the development of critical thinking skills to ensure reliable information is gleaned and proper English is adopted. In conclusion, Facebook holds potential as a tool for English language learning when used strategically alongside other resources and a critical approach to information evaluation.

Perspectives of Female Physicians Who Lead in the Public Health Sector in India – A Qualitative Study

abstract Introduction: This qualitative, research studies female physicians in leadership roles to identify reasons for their underrepresentation. Materials and Methods: Fourteen female physicians in leadership positions in India’s federal and state ministries of health were purposively sampled and interviewed online. Results: Female physician face cultural, organisational and structural barriers. Familial expectations and imbibed, internalised responsibility to prioritise family hold them back. The rigid bureaucracy makes their workplaces non-inclusive. Microaggressions and implicit gender bias abound. A formalised training system and a performance-based reward system are absent. The enabling factors are family support, incidental learning, being emotionally intelligent and passion for their work. Conclusions: Action at the societal, medical education and public health system structural level can motivate female physicians to assume for leadership positions.

Incidental learning of predictive temporal context within cortical representations of visual shape.

Abstract Incidental learning of spatio-temporal regularities and consistencies— also termed ‘statistical learning’— may be important for discovering the causal principles governing the world. We studied statistical learning of temporal structure simultaneously at two time-scales: the presentation of synthetic visual objects (3 s) and predictive temporal context (30 s) in the order of appearance of such objects. Visual objects were complex and rotated in three dimensions about varying axes. Observers viewed fifteen (15) objects recurring many times each, intermixed with other objects that appeared only once, while whole-brain BOLD activity was recorded. Over three successive days, observers grew familiar with the recurring objects and reliably distinguished them from others. As reported elsewhere (Kakaei &amp; Braun, 2023), representational similarity analysis (RSA) of multivariate BOLD activity revealed 124 ‘object-selective’ brain parcels with selectivity for recurring objects, located mostly in the ventral occipitotemporal cortex and the parietal cortex. Here we extend RSA to the representation of predictive temporal context, specifically “temporal communities” formed by objects that tended to follow each other. After controlling for temporal proximity, we observed 27 ‘community-sensitive’ brain parcels, in which pairwise distances between multivariate responses reflected community structure, either positively (smaller distances within than between communities) or negatively (larger distances within). Among object-selective parcels, 11 parcels were positively community-sensitive in the primary visual cortex (2 parcels), the ventral occipital, lingual, or fusiform cortex (8 parcels), and the inferior temporal cortex (1 parcel). Among non-object-selective parcels, 12 parcels were negatively community-sensitive in the superior, middle, and medial frontal cortex (6 parcels), the insula (2 parcels), the putamen (1 parcel), and in the superior temporal or parietal cortex (3 parcels). We conclude that cortical representations of object shape and of predictive temporal context are largely coextensive along the ventral occipitotemporal cortex.

Forward and backward blocking in statistical learning.

Prediction errors have a prominent role in many forms of learning. For example, in reinforcement learning, agents learn by updating the association between states and outcomes as a function of the prediction error elicited by the event. One paradigm often used to study error-driven learning is blocking. In forward blocking, participants are first presented with stimulus A, followed by outcome X (A→X). In the second phase, A and B are presented together, followed by X (AB→X). Here, A→X blocks the formation of B→X, given that X is already fully predicted by A. In backward blocking, the order of phases is reversed. Here, the association between B and X that is formed during the first learning phase of AB→X is weakened when participants learn exclusively A→X in the second phase. The present study asked the question whether forward and backward blocking occur during visual statistical learning, i.e., the incidental learning of the statistical structure of the environment. In a series of studies, using both forward and backward blocking, we observed statistical learning of temporal associations among pairs of images. While we found no forward blocking, we observed backward blocking, thereby suggesting a retrospective revaluation process in statistical learning and supporting a functional similarity between statistical learning and reinforcement learning.

Strategies for developing hard skills in higher education students through innovative pedagogical technologies in realistic professional environments

Introduction: the global emphasis on developing hard skills, essential for professional competence in digital optimization, has led to a focus on practical skills like foreign language proficiency, programming, and data analysis. These skills, acquired through education or experience, are crucial across various professions, especially in the digital era, where innovative pedagogical methods are key.Objectives: this study aims to analyze the impact of innovative pedagogical technologies on developing hard skills, particularly foreign language competence, in higher education students, simulating real-world professional environments.Methods: the study employs a range of general scientific methods, including analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, formalization, and generalization. These methods help identify and describe the development of hard skills and digital competence, focusing on innovative pedagogical strategies.Results: the findings highlight a structural-functional model for professional training in the digital labor market, emphasizing interdisciplinary integration, professional training alignment with market needs, and the use of innovative technologies. Key skills identified include financial management, software development, and foreign language proficiency, essential for making informed managerial decisions in a globalized world.Conclusions: the integration of innovative pedagogical methods, such as incidental learning and argumentation, enhances the development of hard skills, particularly English language competence. The study underscores the importance of creating learning environments that closely mirror professional conditions, thereby improving the quality of education and preparing students for the demands of the modern labor market. Future research should focus on refining digital tools and methodologies to further enhance language skills and overall hard skill development

Correlates of Theta and Gamma Activity during Visuospatial Incidental/Intentional Encoding and Retrieval Indicate Differences in Processing in Young and Elderly Healthy Participants.

Incidental visuospatial learning acquired under incidental conditions is more vulnerable to aging than in the intentional case. The theta and gamma correlates of the coding and retrieval of episodic memory change during aging. Based on the vulnerability of incidental coding to aging, different theta and gamma correlates could occur under the incidental versus intentional coding and retrieval of visuospatial information. Theta and gamma EEG was recorded from the frontotemporal regions, and incidental/intentional visuospatial learning was evaluated in young (25-60 years old) and elderly (60-85 years old) participants. The EEG recorded during encoding and retrieval was compared between incidental low-demand, incidental high-demand, and intentional conditions through an ANCOVA considering the patient's gender, IQ, and years of schooling as covariates. Older adults exhibited worse performances, especially in place-object associations. After the intentional study, older participants showed a further increase in false-positive errors. Higher power at the theta and gamma bands was observed for frontotemporal derivations in older participants for both encoding and retrieval. Under retrieval, only young participants had lower power in terms of errors compared with correct responses. In conclusion, the different patterns of power and coherence support incidental and intentional visuospatial encoding and retrieval in young and elderly individuals. The correlates of power with behavior are sensitive to age and performance.

Incidental Learning of Collocations Under Different Input Modes and the Mediating Role of Perceptual Learning Style.

This study investigated how input modes (reading vs. listening) and learners' perceptual learning style (visual vs. auditory) affected the incidental learning of collocations. A total of 182 college students were first assigned to either a visual or auditory group based on their performance on a perceptual learning style questionnaire. Each style group was subsequently subdivided into three groups who were exposed to a series of texts containing unfamiliar collocation items under one of the input conditions: written input, aural input, or no input. Results of the study indicated that both written and aural input led to gains in collocational knowledge, and aural input was more effective than written input. Furthermore, the study provided empirical evidence that there was a moderating role of perceptual learning style on incidental collocation learning. The auditory learners under aural input showed the highest rate of collocation learning among all treatment subgroups.