Inches Of Rain Research Articles

California coastal access damage from early winter 2022-2023 storms: A photo essay

Atmospheric rivers, “bomb cyclones,” storm waves and high tides wreaked havoc along the central California coast from San Francisco to Monterey. From 26 December 2022 to 11 January 2023, more than 10 inches of rain fell in central California (Landers 2023). During this same time period, higher high tides were 6-ft or greater for 10 of these days and 35-ft high waves were noted. Beaches, beach accesses, and coastal trails were on the front lines for storm defenses and damage. In addition to the extensive new coverage, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s National Geodetic Survey (NOAA/NGS) collected continuous post-storm(s) airborne photography along the west coast that will be invaluable in analyzing future long-term shoreline changes (NOAA/NGS 2023). The following photos, taken soon after the storms, show some of the coastal damage near and in Monterey Bay.

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Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment for Private Wells in Flood-Impacted Areas

Microbial contamination of private well systems continues to be a prominent drinking water concern, especially for areas impacted by floodwaters. Hurricane Harvey deposited nearly 60 inches of rain, resulting in extensive flooding throughout Houston, Texas, and neighboring counties. A sampling campaign to test private wells for fecal indicator bacteria was initiated in the weeks following flooding. Escherichia coli concentrations measured in wells were utilized in a quantitative microbial risk assessment to estimate the risk of infection for both drinking water and indirect ingestion exposure scenarios. Derived reference pathogen doses indicated that norovirus (1.60 × 10−4 to 8.32 × 10−5) and Cryptosporidium (2.37–7.80 × 10−6) posed the greatest health risk via drinking, with median health risk estimates exceeding the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s modified daily risk threshold of 1 × 10−6 for a gastrointestinal infection. Bathing (1.78 × 10−6), showering (4.32 × 10−7), and food/dish washing (1.79 × 10−6) were also identified to be exposure pathways of health concern. A post-flood microbial risk assessment of private wells in the Gulf Coast has not previously been conducted. Estimating these health risks can provide scientifically supported guidance regarding which well water practices are safest, especially when well water quality is unknown. Developing this guidance is critical as coastal communities experience increased vulnerability to flooding.

Climate Witness: Oral Environmental History and Community-Based Research—A Case Study from Trans-Himalayan India

ABSTRACT On August 5, 2010, a violent cloudburst dumped fourteen inches of rain on Ladakh, a mountain desert region in the far north of India accustomed to getting just three inches of rain in a year. Five years later, flooding recurred on a wider scale, destroying buildings, roads, fields, and orchards all over Ladakh and provoking a wide-ranging discussion among locals about the causes of climate catastrophe. In this essay, we attend to those local voices and allow the people of Ladakh to speak for themselves about the causes and consequences of climate change as well as the best forms of climate change adaptation in the trans-Himalayan region. We offer a two-year progress report on our ongoing oral history fieldwork in this unique and ecologically sensitive high desert region. At the same time, we offer some reflections on the discipline of oral history itself and the promise it offers in conjunction with community engagement to the study of climate change. The surprising fact remains that despite much recent and inspiring work at the compelling intersection of oral and environmental history, few oral historians have taken on directly the subject of climate change, and those who have tend to dwell on the specific experience of the American West. Here we join those few oral and environmental historians who are approaching climate change by way of global community engagement. Only by way of such engagement, we argue—only by following the best practices of what has come to be known as community-based participatory research, can oral history fulfill its public mission as we understand it and contribute decisively to the humanistic study of the Anthropocene.

Heavy metal pollution of soils and risk assessment in Houston, Texas following Hurricane Harvey

In August 2017, after Hurricane Harvey made landfall, almost 52 inches of rain fell during a three-day period along the Gulf Coast Region of Texas, including Harris County, where Houston is located. Harris County was heavily impacted with over 177,000 homes and buildings (approximately 12 percent of all buildings in the county) experiencing flooding. The objective of this study was to measure 13 heavy metals in soil in residential areas and to assess cancer and non-cancer risk for children and adults after floodwaters receded. Between September and November 2017, we collected 174 surface soil samples in 10 communities, which were classified as “High Environmental Impact” or “Low Environmental Impact” communities, based on a composite metric of six environmental parameters. A second campaign was conducted between May 2019 and July 2019 when additional 204 soil samples were collected. Concentrations of metals at both sampling campaigns were higher in High Environmental Impact communities than in Low Environmental Impact communities and there was little change in metal levels between the two sampling periods. The Pollution Indices of lead (Pb), zinc, copper, nickel, and manganese in High Environmental Impact communities were significantly higher than those in Low Environmental Impact communities. Further, cancer risk estimates in three communities for arsenic through soil ingestion were greater than 1 in 1,000,000. Although average soil Pb was lower than the benchmark of the United States Environmental Protection Agency, the hazard indices for non-cancer outcomes in three communities, mostly attributed to Pb, were greater than 1. Health risk estimates for children living in these communities were greater than those for adults.

Navigating the “Bureaucratic Beast” in North Carolina Hurricane Recovery

Hurricane Florence swept up the eastern United States coast and slowly moved through North Carolina as a tropical storm in September 2018. Producing twenty to thirty inches of rain, Florence caused dangerous flooding, displacement, and widespread wind damage and power outages. While coastal areas were hard hit by the storm, many impoverished in-land areas spanning multiple river basins were also heavily flooded. Although the winds have ceased and the waters receded, the disaster continues to unfold in bureaucratic contexts with uneven effects temporally and spatially for affected locals. Local organizations and the Federal Emergency Management Agency assess damages, process funding applications, and work to rebuild. Drawing on ten months of ethnographic research in Cumberland County, NC, we illuminate the ways in which the temporality of bureaucratic processes is a form of bureaucratic violence that exacerbates suffering in the context of crisis and how local organizations attempt to recover and rebuild in the face of pervasive top-down bureaucratic obstacles.

Historic Rainfall and Record-Breaking Flooding from Hurricane Florence in the Pee Dee Watershed

For the third time in four years, record-breaking flooding occurred in South Carolina. Hurricane Florence, which made landfall near Wrightsville Beach, North Carolina, on September 14, 2018, moved slowly across South Carolina from September 14–17, 2018. Over those four days, heavy rain fell over portions of the Pee Dee Watershed and eastern North Carolina, with over 30 inches of rain measured by an observer in Swansboro, North Carolina. Most of the excessive rainfall was confined to the Pee Dee region, with reported totals of over 24 inches in Horry County, while closer to the Savannah River Valley observers measured less than an inch of rain. Unlike the more recent flooding events across the state, not as many rainfall records were set during this event. The amount of rainfall at various locations, and at different time intervals (1-day, 2-day, 3-day, and 4-day), had a statistical probability of occurrence of 0.1%, or 1 in 1,000 chance of happening in any given year, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Atlas 14 (Bonnin et al., 2004). The rainfall associated with Hurricane Florence produced a long duration and significant flood that impacted many of the same communities still recovering from the October 2015 floods and Hurricane Matthew in 2016. Many of the rivers and streams within the Pee Dee Watershed experienced major or extreme flooding, with six stream gauges reaching record peaks, some surpassing the records set in 2016. This report provides an overview of the antecedent conditions, a synoptic summary of the event, and documentation on the meteorological and hydrological impacts observed across the Palmetto State.

A School of Nursing's Response to Hurricane Harvey.

Hurricane Harvey hit the Gulf Coast in August 2017, dumping over 60 inches of rain in just a few short days. Nearly a quarter of households were damaged or lost during this time, and services were impacted for weeks. This article discusses one school of nursing's response to this natural disaster. With natural disasters increasing in number, it is hoped that this article will help schools of nursing plan for such an event.

Water and Steel: The 1977 Johnstown Flood and the Bethlehem Steel Corporation

ABSTRACT On the evening of July 19, 1977, it began raining over Johnstown, Pennsylvania, and didn't stop until twelve inches of rain had fallen in ten hours. In addition to the rain falling from the skies, water also rushed down the mountain slopes above the city and dams gave way, wreaking devastation. By the following morning, eighty-six people were dead, hundreds were injured, four dams had broken apart or eroded, and residents of the community began cleaning up following the third major flood to strike the city since its founding in the early nineteenth century. Once a vital hub of the US steel industry, the 1977 flood altered Johnstown's economic future. The city that once served as home to more than 16,000 steel workers was forced to reinvent its economy, something that remains a work in progress more than forty years since the deluge of 1977.

Hurricane Harvey AAR: Preparedness Recommendations Based on Surveillance Data

ObjectiveTo provide recommendations for future preparedness response efforts based on an assessment of the Post-Hurricane Harvey After-Action Report (AAR).IntroductionOn August 25, 2017 Hurricane Harvey moved onshore near Port Aransas, Texas, eventually overwhelming areas of Houston with between 41-60 inches of rain (Houston Health Department [HHD], 2017). As a category 4 storm, with wind speeds as high as 130 mph, Harvey broke several rainfall records across the state and ended the prolonged period of twelve years in which no major hurricanes had made landfall in the United States (Mersereau, 2017). Harvey ambled at a leisurely pace through Houston and resulted in devastating flooding that destroyed homes and required the evacuation of approximately 37,000 Houstonians to over 78 shelter facilities across the affected area (HHD, 2017). Through concerted efforts, the American Red Cross and the HHD established the shelter at the George R. Brown Convention Center (GRB) and “delivered or coordinated social services, medical and mental health services, disease surveillance and food/sanitary inspection services” for the duration of the need for the shelter (HHD, 2017).MethodsSyndromic surveillance data is essential to understanding the health status of affected communities during and after a disaster. For this abstract, we reviewed data collected from different surveillance systems and programs within the Houston Health Department (HHD), namely Real-Time Outbreak and Surveillance (RODS), Houston Electronic Disease Surveillance System (HEDSS) and other program systems, and reports compiled into the AAR. The AAR contained an assessment of the data collected daily during shelter surveillance and helped identify gaps in the implementation of preparedness plans, current procedures, and best practices. HHD’s Informatics team was responsible for data collection, training of staff and maintaining a cloud based repository of information on surveillance data and resources. A review of the AAR indicated a need for resources for the general shelter population to address the need for pharmacy data, enhanced behavioral support for individuals with mental health needs, dialysis treatment plans and pharmaceutical needs for patients with respiratory illness or hypertension.ResultsFrom August 30, 2017 to September 8, 2017 approximately 3,500 evacuees residing at the GRB shelter were assessed for a variety of medical conditions and complaints. Patient encounters peaked on September 4, 2017, with 705 patient encounters recorded. Data from the AAR suggested there were four most prevalent conditions of immediate need; affecting almost 25% of the shelter population were hypertension (10.4%), mental and behavioral issues (7.9%), diabetes (5.7%) and dialysis or renal failure (0.3%). There were challenges with supply of medications and synchronization of data collection by HHD and partner agencies. The department’s Continuity of Operation Plan (COOP) was voluminous and was not easily accessible during the disaster response. The findings from the After-Action Report indicate that disasters present multidimensional health challenges that can overwhelm advance preparations and more needs to be done to address the problems identified from previous disaster responses to improve on future outcomes.ConclusionsSyndromic surveillance can be strengthened in the following recommended areas for better incorporation into disaster response plans; pharmacy and health related data and data collection.The ingestion of pharmacy data by the syndromic surveillance systems could highlight gaps in the supply of needed medications at pharmacies during and post disaster, data from behavioral health clinics could show whether victims of the disaster who suffer mental health issues are able to access care, and whether dialysis treatment plans were continued. Based on the gaps identified, recommendations include integration of pharmacy data into the City’s disease surveillance system “ESSENCE” for tracking prescriptions and OTC purchases, to ensure adequate preparation for disaster stock levels and identification of sources for reordering when stocks run short.Additionally, it is recommended to revise and standardize data collection tools used during shelter surveillance to streamline the data collection process and to align the data tools of partner agencies, particularly DMAT and Red Cross, to prevent unnecessary duplication of efforts.Finally, the City’s Continuity of Operation Plan (COOP) has been revised since Hurricane Harvey and is periodically assessed and updated. The revised and updated COOP provides a concise and readily accessible document which can be easily reviewed and implemented to support an emergency response.

Preparedness Helps MH Professionals Cope With Hurricane Florence

No one waited for the slow-moving storm and its heavy rainfall to arrive before taking action to help patients with mental illness.

The Effect of Season and Weather on Orthopaedic Trauma: Consult Volume Is Significantly Correlated with Daily Weather

Introduction On-call orthopedic clinicians have long speculated that daily consult volume is closely correlated with weather. While prior studies have demonstrated a relationship between weather and certain fracture types, the effect of weather on total orthopaedic consult volume has not yet been examined. The aim of this study was to investigate this relationship. Methods We retrospectively reviewed orthopaedic consult data from 405 consecutive days at an urban, level one trauma center. The number, mechanism of injury, and type of consult were collected, along with daily weather data (temperature, wind, and precipitation). Statistical analysis was then performed to determine the relationship between weather and orthopaedic trauma consults. Results A total of 4543 consults were received during the study period. There was a significant difference in total number of consults between months of the year (p<0.001). A post hoc analysis revealed that this was due to increased volume in the summer months relative to the winter months (i.e., August 13.7 consults/day; January 9.3 consults/day). Average daily temperature and consult volume were also positively correlated (p<0.001, r= 0.30). While there was no significant association between precipitation and total consult volume, when there was over 0.25 inches of rain, there were less penetrating trauma (p=0.034) and motorcycle collision consults (p=0.013). Conclusion Weather parameters, specifically average temperature and precipitation, were found to be associated with daily orthopedic consult type and volume. Additionally, consult volume varies significantly between months of the year. Because trauma centers are often resource scarce, this is an important relationship to understand for proper resource allocation.

Hurricane Maria and its Impact on the Zoological and Botanical Collections of the University of Puerto Rico

With a total of more than 150,000 specimens, the 85-year old collections of insects and terrestrial, freshwater, and marine invertebrates of the University of Puerto Rico at Mayagüez (UPRM), western Puerto Rico, are among the most significant repositories for these groups in the Caribbean region. Located in Mayagüez and on Magueyes Island, these collections were created by outstanding insect and invertebrate specialists working in Puerto Rico and surrounding islands. Holdings are particularly strong in the Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Collembola, Crustacea, Mollusca, Echinodermata, and Cnidaria. Collecting and curatorial activities, initiated in the 1920s, were maintained throughout the 1980s, resulting in many taxonomically and historically valuable records for the region. From 1990 to 2005, the invertebrate collections were increasingly neglected, with certain parts scattered throughout multiple buildings and rooms, inaccessible, or inadequately stored and at risk of becoming damaged or lost. The support for these collections was not sustained at high levels due to a variety of factors, including changes in the research profile of new academic appointments and the shortsightedness of administrators to fully understand the cultural, educational and scientific value of the museum holdings. With the exception of a federal grant through NSF - DBI (National Science Foundation - Biological Research Collections - PI Frantz - 2007-2010), which initiated a flurry of Museum related activities to improve the deteriorating museum facilities throughout the UPRM campus, the Museum collections are now facing even more challenges, some anthropogenic and very recently, some natural. Major Hurricane Maria (Category 4), delivered a devastating blow to the island of Puerto Rico on 20 September 2017. Both terrestrial and marine ecosystems were heavily impacted. Extensive structural damage to roads, telecommunications, water systems, the energy grid and approximately 60,000 houses/buildings made Hurricane Maria the most damaging Hurricane (estimated cost ~ 90 billion dollars) in the USA after Katrina and Harvey. Flooding caused by the direct impact of Hurricane Maria (5 to 40 inches of rain fell during the first 48 hours in Puerto Rico) and subsequent extensive loss of electricity caused unfavorable conditions for the collections. The University of Puerto Rico in Mayaguez closed for approximately 45 days and limited electricity, if any, was available through diesel generators. High levels of humidity and heat can cause further structural damage as well as favor the growth of fungus in enclosed areas of UPRM, including the Museums. Efforts to safeguard the collections will be outlined here to ensure the collections remain a valuable natural asset of the people of Puerto Rico as part of their natural patrimony and as an irreplaceable education tool.

Precipitation thresholds for fecal bacterial indicators in the Chesapeake Bay

Many coastal states of the United States restrict harvest of shellfish from select areas based on some environmental trigger. Such areas are classified as being conditionally approved. In Maryland, the trigger is an inch or more of rainfall that has fallen in the last 24 h. This study used 11 years of monitoring data to test the relationship between daily rainfall totals and densities of fecal indicators in Maryland shellfish harvest waters. Precipitation and fecal coliform (FC) water monitoring data from 2004 to 2014 were matched by date and watershed. The influence of antecedent rainfall conditions (i.e. rainfall in the preceding days or weeks) and the distance of each monitoring station to land were compared to the percent of samples exceeding the FDA criterion for managing shellfish harvest areas. Sample stations beyond 1000m from land had FC densities consistently below the FDA criterion and were excluded from further analysis. Rainfall events greater than an inch tended to result in significantly elevated FC for the following two days, followed by lower levels thereafter. The total amount of rain in the last three weeks was positively related to the proportion of samples with FC greater than the FDA criterion. Bay-wide, the percent of samples exceeding the FDA criterion rose from seven percent for rainfall less than an inch to 37% following one or more inches of rain. Watersheds were classified based on the percent of FC densities over the criterion when rainfall was an inch or more, with 41 of 81 watersheds showing FC responses indicative of potential conditionally approved areas, those shellfish growing areas where the one inch precipitation trigger may be applied. These areas largely overlapped the current conditionally approved areas defined by Maryland. The percent of open water, wetlands, and poorly drained soils explained a significant amount of the variability (R2 = 0.72) in the difference in percent of samples exceeding the FDA criterion when rainfall was greater than an inch and when it was less than an inch. Logistic regression analysis showed that the current trigger of one inch of rain in 24 h is predictive of FC densities over the FDA criterion, though the appropriate threshold will most likely depend on how far the particular shellfish growing area is from land and antecedent rain conditions. In watersheds with relatively high percentages of open water to total watershed size, higher rainfall thresholds might be appropriate. The approach taken in this study could be applied to individual stations and sub-watersheds, potentially allowing the reclassification of some shellfish harvest areas.

Starting Over After Environmental Trauma

In August 2016, Baton Rouge, Louisiana, was inundated by 31 inches of rain during a 48-hour period. Entire communities were flooded. Many homes had six feet of water. People were awakened in the middle of the night with water rising around them. Once things began to settle, the emotional damage became apparent. Nemeth and Whittington 2012, outlined the following six stages of recovery from environmental trauma: 1) Shock, 2) Survival Mode, 3) Assessment of Basic Needs, 4) Awareness of Loss, 5) Susceptibility to Spin and Fraud, and 6) Resolution. Many flood victims, who presented for health care, were reporting the following symptoms: constant worry, irritability, tension, headaches, restlessness, sleep disturbance, sadness, and fatigue. These symptoms were anniversary reactions. Most likely, these individuals had been flooded in March 2016 and/or during Hurricane Katrina in 2005, not just in August 2016. People were still emotionally numb four months afterwards. As thinking in the shadow of feelings is often very hard to do, the need for psychotherapeutic intervention was apparent. People who attended these Emotional Resiliency workshops were given an opportunity to be heard, to share their feelings, and to learn effective coping mechanisms. The real strength of the workshops was, however, the opportunity for bonding. People who felt very alone came together and found strength in their common purpose. Psychological coping skills were enhanced and a deeper sense of spiritual awareness occurred. Creative drawings, relaxation exercises, and expressions of thankfulness allowed people to express their feelings and to move forward.

Catastrophic hurricanes and public health dangers: lesson learned

Hurricane Harvey made landfall in Houston, Texas initially on Aug. 25 and subsequently along the coast of Louisiana with winds recorded up to 130 miles per hour (MPH) and over 51.9 inches of rain.

From the Other Side

It is unclear how to start this column. A few days before this year's SEG Annual Meeting, a strange chap called Harvey encamped over the Houston area. He stayed around for a few days and dumped 50 inches of rain. That was great for the rhubarb but not so good for the residents of Houston and south Texas. During the hurricane, residents kept close watch on the bayou water levels. One morning, I arose and took a step into my sunken living room. I encountered a few inches of water. Oh well, I thought. I quickly moved a lot of furniture to the next level up, which was a little more than a foot higher. I was happy with the situation even though the carpet in the living room was history. It quit raining, but the water remained — a few inches in the sunken living room. There was an announcement that the two reservoirs (behind the earthen dams) were going to increase the release of water to 7000 cubic feet/minute. That added about five feet of water.

President's Message Summer Musings…Still Uncertain Times for Science

President's Message Summer Musings…Still Uncertain Times for Science

Psychiatrists Go Beyond Call of Duty to Respond to Harvey’s Victims

Psychiatrists Go Beyond Call of Duty to Respond to Harvey’s Victims

Booms, Blooms, and Doom: The Life of the Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone

Booms, Blooms, and Doom:The Life of the Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone Jack E. Davis (bio) For fourteen weeks in the winter and early spring of 2016, snow and rain kept falling on the Midwestern states. There were a few dry days in between many wet ones, but the usual long spells failed to come. Weather trackers had never seen the Midwest escape drought for such an extended period. Not surprisingly, precipitation exceeded annual averages for much of the region. In April, eight inches of rain soaked northwestern Missouri, where no more than three were normal, and in the first two weeks of the month, snowfall in northern Ohio reached up to seventeen inches above average.1 Midwestern farmers welcomed the moistening of the soil, just as long as the rain stopped before the ground turned too muddy for planting. The rain stopped. By the first of May, the majority of the corn crop was in the ground, surpassing a five-year average, and soybeans were close behind. These were the region's principal cash crops. The growing season was off to a nice start. But what was good for farmers of the Midwest was bad for sea life down in the northern Gulf of Mexico, hundreds of miles from the growing fields. In June, a two-decker headline in Mother Jones warned that the Gulf "is about to experience a 'dead zone' the size of Connecticut," nearly 6,000 square miles. Typically, the seasonal dead [End Page 156] zone kept to Delaware dimensions, its length running the front of Louisiana, reaching toward Texas in one direction, Alabama in the other, and some 40 miles into the Gulf.2 Scientists discovered the Gulf of Mexico dead zone in the 1970s, as an annual summer event. Within a few years they tracked down its principal source to chemical fertilizer runoff from the Mississippi River drainage basin, which taps forty percent of the contiguous United States, a total of thirty–one states. The area includes the Midwest and most of the High Plains, America's agricultural heartland. Corn, the biggest crop in the region and a fertilizer hog, was the principal contributor to the Gulf's woes. In the twenty–first century, with the increased production of corn-based ethanol, scientists saw a spike in fertilizer use and in the size of the dead zone. From the beginning, the ethanol connection made interesting copy for the media. Federal assistance greatly expanded the additive's presence in the domestic fuel inventory, and scientists looking for answers to reducing the dead zone, operating on federal grants in many cases, were sobered by the eclipsing power of the marketplace. But there is an important backstory here that remains adrift from the news-generating narrative. Long before ethanol's ascendency, the dead zone came to life in postwar America and of age with the baby boom generation. A defining facet in the boomer experience was the changing culinary landscape, an overall distressing development for Americans and the Gulf together. The diet of the new generation spiraled away from nutritional goodness and took a fateful turn into rivers and streams in the direction of the Gulf. Ultimately, the diminishing physical health of Americans translated into the diminishing health of their backyard sea. ________ journalists came up with the name "dead zone" in the 1980s for what scientists were abstrusely calling hypoxic coastal waters. The oxygen level in such areas, some several hundred acres and others [End Page 157] several thousand square miles, periodically drops to a level too low to support marine life. The results are mass die offs of sea creatures, especially bottom dwellers. Behind the morbidity lies an excessive infusion of nutrients. The overloading stimulates phytoplankton blooms, and, eventually, all this new minuscule life begins to die and sink to the bottom, often with other decaying organic matter. Performing its custodial role in the ecosystem, bacteria steps in to break down the dead, generating carbon dioxide as it consumes massive quantities of oxygen, leaving sea creatures to suffocate. Dead zones are worldwide. Some are natural, others the fallout of human activities. The former have been around for time immemorial. Alabama's Mobile Bay...