Incensole Research Articles

Selectively extracting oleoresin from Boswellia papyrifera frankincense resin by sub- and supercritical CO2 processes

In this work, selectively extracting oleoresin from the Boswellia papyrifera frankincense resin was studied by sub- and supercritical CO2 processes. GS-MS analysis was applied to identify the constituents of extracts. Sequential sub- and supercritical CO2 extraction were carried out in four stages corresponding to the pressure of 10 MPa, 15 MPa, 20 MPa, and 25 MPa at fixed temperatures of 25 ℃ and 40 ℃, respectively. The obtained oleoresins were transparent with faint yellow and the yield was 23.8% and 25.1% for sub-, and supercritical extraction, respectively. Twenty-one compounds with a relative peak area of over 1% were identified. Essential oils, alcohols, hydrocarbons, diterpenes, diterpenoids, and triterpenoids are the main chemical classes, among which the relative peak area of incensole was the highest, reaching 36% in the corresponding fraction of extracts, followed by incensole acetate with relative peak area of 17–20%. These results would benefit the depth developing applications of Boswellia papyrifera frankincense resin.

Acetyl-11-Keto-β-Boswellic Acid and Incensole Acetate Attenuate Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Acute Kidney Injury by Inhibiting Inflammation and Oxidative Stress.

Boswellia serrata has been used in traditional medicine to treat various inflammatory diseases. Acetyl-11-keto-β-boswellic acid (AKBA) and incensole acetate (IA) are two active ingredients of B. serrata that possess anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities. The present study aimed to investigate the protective effects of AKBA and IA against lipopolysaccharide (LPS)- induced acute kidney injury (AKI) in rats. Wistar rats were intraperitoneally pretreated with AKBA or IA for 2 weeks. After 30 min, an LPS injection was applied to induce AKI. Blood samples and kidney tissues were collected and used for biochemical assays. AKBA and IA not only significantly decreased interleukin-6 as a marker of renal inflammation but also attenuated the oxidative stress markers in kidney tissues. AKBA and IA also remarkably decreased serum creatinine and blood urea nitrogen. These results suggest that AKBA and IA have protective effects against AKI in rats through regulating inflammation and oxidative stress.

Optimal processing technology of Zhangbang vinegar-processed Olibanum with multi-indicator-response surface methodology and anticoagulant effect evaluation

This study first optimized the processing technology for Zhangbang vinegar-processed Olibanum and investigated its in vitro anticoagulant activity. A multi-index-response surface methodology was used, with yield, powder yield, and the relative percentage of the content of six non-volatile components [11-keto-boswellic acid(KBA), 3-acetyl-11-keto-boswellic acid(AKBA), β-elemonic acid, α-boswellic acid(α-BA), β-boswellic acid(β-BA), and α-acetyl-boswellic acid(α-BA)] and three volatile components(octyl acetate, incensole, and incensole acetate) as evaluation indicators. Analytical hierarchy process(AHP) combined with coefficient of variation method was used to calculate the weight of each indicator and calculate the comprehensive score(OD). Furthermore, response surface methodology was used to investigate the effects of frying temperature(A), burning time(B), rice vinegar dosage(C), and steaming time(D) on the processing technology of vinegar-processed Olibanum. Vinegar-steamed Olibanum was prepared according to the optimal processing technology for in vitro anticoagulant experiments. The results showed that the weights of octyl acetate, incensole, incensole acetate, KBA, AKBA, β-elemonic acid, α-BA, β-BA, α-ABA, yield, and powder yield were 0.358 2, 0.104 5, 0.146 4, 0.032 9, 0.123 7, 0.044 4, 0.022 1, 0.042 2, 0.110 1, 0.012 2, and 0.0032, respectively. The optimal processing technology for Zhangbang vinegar-processed Olibanum was as follows. Olibanum(50 g) with a particle size of 1-5 mm was continuously stir-fried at a low heat of 150-180 ℃ until in a gel-like state, ignited for burning for 15 s, sprayed with 7.5 g of rice vinegar(15%), and steamed for 3 min without fire. Subsequently, the cover was removed, and the product was continuously stir-fried at 150-180 ℃ until in a soft lump shape, removed, cooled, and crushed. The results of the in vitro anticoagulant experiments showed that compared with the blank group, both Olibanum and vinegar-processed Olibanum significantly prolonged the activated partial thromboplastin time(APTT), thrombin time(TT), and prothrombin time(PT) of rat platelet-poor plasma(PPP), and the effect of vinegar-processed Olibanum was significantly better than that of Olibanum(P<0.05). The optimized processing technology for Zhangbang vinegar-processed Olibanum is stable, feasible, and beneficial for the further development and utilization of Olibanum slices. At the same time, using the content of volatile and non-volatile components, yield, and powder yield as indicators, and verifying through pharmacological experiments, the obtained results are more reasonable and credible, and have positive guiding significance for the clinical application of characteristic processed Olibanum products.

Synthesis, characterization and anti-breast cancer potential of an incensole acetate nanoemulsion from Catharanthus roseus essential oil; in silico, in vitro, and in vivo study

The prospective activity of incensole acetate (IA) identified and isolated from Catharanthus roseus essential oil and the anticancer potential of an IA biosynthesized nanoemulsion against DMBA induced breast cancer markers was investigated.

Synthesis and antidepressant-like effects of new 5-epi-incensole and 5-epi- incensole acetate in chronic unpredictable mild stress model of depression; behavioural and biochemical correlates

In the current investigation, 5-epi-incensole (3) and 5-epi-incensole acetate (5) were synthesized from the most potent anti-depressant constituents incensole (1) and incensole acetate (2) of Boswellia papyrifera Hochst. The resulting compounds were evaluated for their ability to ameliorate depressive symptoms in forced swim test (FST) and tail suspension test (TST) in chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) induced depression paradigm. The results demonstrated that compounds 3 and 5 at the doses of 1 and 3 mg/kg administered for 28 days, significantly reduced the immobility time in FST and TST and were devoid of any effect on locomotor activity in the open field test (OFT). Both compounds 3 and 5 also reversed CUMS-induced reduction in the weight of animals and aversion in sucrose preference. The tested compounds also inhibited Monoamine oxidase-A (MAO) enzyme and increased the levels of brain noradrenaline (NA) and 5-Hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), decreased plasma corticosterone and pro-inflammatory cytokines including TNF-α, IL-6 in hippocampal homogenates. Compounds 3 and 5 also significantly reduced the increased lipid peroxidation and nitrite levels; decreased glutathione levels, and catalase activities in mice undergoing CUMS protocol. The binding mode of compounds 3 and 5 was predicted at the monoamine oxidase substrate binding site by molecular docking having docking scores of > −6 kcal/mol. Taken together these data revealed that compounds 3 and 5 exerted antidepressant-like effects in chronic unpredictable mild stress-induced depression paradigm and are likely mediated via modulating the central oxidative stress, MAO-A activity with a consequent increase in brain NA and 5-HT levels in inflammatory pathways.

Identification of novel prolyl oligopeptidase inhibitors from resin of Boswellia papyrifera (Del.) Hochst. and their mechanism: Virtual and biochemical studies

Prolyl endopeptidase or prolyl oligopeptidase (PEP or POP) is highly expressed in brain, and associated with autism spectrum disorders, dementia, aging and various psychological disorders, such as schizophrenia, mania, and neurodegeneration. To design highly potent and novel POP inhibitors, structure-based virtual screening was carried out using pharmacophore modeling and molecular docking studies. The docking based active compounds [incensole (1), incensole acetate (2), incensone (3), incensfuran (4), and epi-incensole acetate (5)] were selected and their dynamic behavior was studied through molecular dynamic simulation. Later, the top-ranked [predicted active, (1–5)] and lower-ranked [predicted in-active, (6–10)] compounds were tested by in-vitro assay. The in-vitro results showed that all top-ranked compounds (1–5) found significantly active against POP enzyme with IC50 values in range of 3.1 ± 0.45 to 24.4 ± 1.16 μM, while lower-ranked (6–10) were inactive, indicated accuracy of docking results. Kinetics studies on all active compounds 1–5 were carried out to investigate their mode of inhibition and dissociation constants Ki. All compounds showed competitive behaviors with Ki values in the range of 0.92–8.12 μM. The study resulted in the identification of five (1–5) diterpene based molecules from natural sources that significantly inhibit the activity of POP by competitive mode of inhibition.

Incensole derivatives from frankincense: Isolation, enhancement, synthetic modification, and a plausible mechanism of their anti-depression activity

Encouraged by the potent anti-depression activities of incensole (1) and incensole acetate (2) isolated from the resin of Boswellia papyrifera in our previous work, different derivatives of 1 and 2 were synthesized in the present study. The reaction of 1 with m-CPBA afforded the mono-epoxide derivative 3a, while the same reaction with 2 led to three different epoxide derivatives 3a, 3b, and 3c. Oxidation of 1 with PCC to get compound 3b, however along with the target 3b, the reaction gave three interesting side products (3c-3e). Oxime (3b-1) resulted from the reaction of 3b with hydroxylamine hydrochloride in pyridine, while epoxidation of 2 generate three epoxide products (4a-4c). The structures of all products were unambiguously confirmed using NMR and Mass spectrometry. Compounds 3a-e and 4a-c (0.1–3 mg/kg, i.p.) demonstrated promising anti-depression activities in classical mouse models of depression of FST and TST. The results showed that compounds 3a-e and 4a-c (0.1–3 mg/kg, i.p.) caused dose dependent reduction in immobility time compared to the vehicle control, with 3c-3e and 4b-4c demonstrating higher potency and efficacy. The findings of the open field test excluded the motor effects of these compounds, thus further confirming their anti-depression activity. Preliminary investigation into their mechanism of action using GABA antagonist, PTZ and molecular docking has predicted that compounds 3e and 4c bind at the GABA binding site of GABAA receptor to produce GABAergic effects. Furthermore, the promising anti-depression potency of compounds 1 and 2 and their derivatives make them lead compounds for drug discovery.

The Effects of Incensole Acetate on Neuro-inflammation, Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor and Memory Impairment Induced by Lipopolysaccharide in Rats.

Incensole acetate (IA) is a major component of Boswellia serrata resin that has been shown to have anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant and neuroprotective properties. The present study determined the effect of IA on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced memory impairment, and hippocampal cytokines and oxidative stress indicators level. We used 32 Wistar rats (220-250g weight) randomly divided into four groups. The control group, which only received the saline-diluted DMSO (vehicle); LPS group which received LPS and was treated with the vehicle; and two IA-treated groups which received 2.5 or 5mg/ kg IA before LPS injection. Morris water maze (MWM) and passive avoidance (PA) tests were performed. Finally, the brains were removed and were used to assess cytokines levels and oxidative stress status. Compared to the LPS group, IA administration reduced the time spent and path traveled to reach the hidden platform during 5days of learning in MWM while increased the time spent in the target quadrant in the probe test. Moreover, IA increased latency while decreased entry number and time spent in the dark chamber of PA test compared to the LPS group. Additionally, pre-treatment with IA attenuated interleukin(IL)-6, tumor necrosis alpha (TNF-α), glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), malondialdehyde (MDA) and nitric oxide (NO) metabolites levels while increased those of IL-10, total thiol, superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Our results indicated that IA improved LPS-induced learning and memory impairments. The observed effects seem to be mediated via a protective activity against neuro-inflammation and brain tissue oxidative damage and through improving BDNF.

Exploiting the versatility of vacuum-assisted headspace solid-phase microextraction in combination with the selectivity of ionic liquid-based GC stationary phases to discriminate Boswellia spp. resins through their volatile and semivolatile fractions.

The frankincense resins, secreted from Boswellia species, are an uncommon example of a natural raw material where every class of terpenoids is present in similar proportions. Diterpenoids (serratol, incensole, and incensole acetate) are used to discriminate samples from different species and origins. Headspace solid-phase microextraction has been used for frankincense analysis, although it requires long sampling time for medium- to low-volatility markers; headspace solid-phase microextraction under vacuum can overcome this limit. Gas chromatography is used for analysis but the separation of incensole and serratol needs polar stationary phases. In this study, we develop a method to discriminate frankincenses based on vacuum-assisted headspace solid-phase microextraction combined with fast gas chromatography-mass spectrometry with ionic liquid-based stationary phases. The optimized conditions for solid samples were: air evacuation below 0°C, 15min of incubation time, and 15min of extraction time. Losses of volatiles due to vial air-evacuation in the presence of the sample were minimized by sample amount above 100mg and low sample temperature. Fast gas chromatography provides the baseline separation of all markers in 20min. By applying vacuum sampling and fast gas chromatography, the total analysis was reduced to 50min compared to 120min (60min sampling plus 60min analysis) as previously reported. The method was successfully applied to commercial frankincense samples.

A strategy of untargeted foodomics profiling for dynamic changes during Fu brick tea fermentation using ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry

During a microbial fermentation process, the chemical composition of Fu brick tea changed substantially. To better profile the unique changes of metabolites and lipids in Fu brick tea at different fermentation stages, a multifaceted strategy combining untargeted foodomics with UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap analysis was developed. The discriminative tea metabolites and lipids were determined by statistical analysis and online database matching. A total of 12 characteristic components (3 metabolic and 9 lipid variables) were found to differ significantly among samples. Quantitative analysis showed that, except for trimyristin and incensole acetate, the content of these compounds gradually increased and finally stabilized with increasing fermentation time. The simultaneous determination of metabolites and lipids in this study provided detailed information for the analysis of multi-component changes in a complex matrix.

<i>In Vivo</i> Hepato-Protective Properties of the Essential Oils of <i>Boswellia papyrifera</i> (Del.) Hochst (Burseraceae) and <i>Ruta chalepensis</i> L. (Rutaceae)

Objective: Boswellia papyrifera (Del.) Hochst and Ruta chalepensis L. are aromatic plants used in the Republic of Djibouti, both as food and medicine. The importance of essential oils of these two species in the treatment of certain pathologies such as inflammations and infections has led to an assessment of their composition in volatile organic compounds and their hepato-protective properties on rats poisoned by carbon tetrachloride (CCl4). Methods: The chemical composition of essential oils studied was determined by GC-MS. The hepato-protective properties of the essential oils of Boswellia papyrifera and Ruta chalepensis were assessed through inhibition of hepato toxicity in rats by CCl4 poisoning. The hepato-protection of essential oils was estimated by measuring biochemical and hematological parameters. Results: Essential oils of Boswellia papyrifera and Ruta chalepensis reduced the blood level of transaminases and triglycerides at the dependent dosage, and restored liver proteins (0.27 g/l) to levels similar to those rats not poisoned by CCl4. Blood levels of uric acid, urea, creatinine and HDL have also been restored to values similar to those of non-poisoned rats. The chemical composition of the essential oils studied shows that Boswellia papyrifera contains incensole acetate (43.76%) and isoincensole (18.42%), and that Ruta chalepensis contains menthyl acetate (29.8%) and piperitone (22.22%). Conclusion: The studies carried out have shown that the essential oils of Boswellia papyrifera and Ruta chalepensis have a hepato-protective potential similar to that of sylimarin (reference hepato-protective substances). The results show that the essential oils of Boswellia papyrifera and Ruta chalepensis could present good prospects in the formulation of phytomedicines for the management of liver diseases.

Analysis of incensole acetate in Boswellia species by near infrared spectroscopy coupled with partial least squares regression and cross-validation by high-performance liquid chromatography

Incensole acetate (diterpenoid), macrocyclic cembrenoid, found in significant amounts in Boswellia papyrifera has been shown to cause anti-inflammatory, psychoactive, anxiolytic and anti-depressive effects. Boswellia is the main source of incensole acetate and therefore developing a reliable and fast method of its analysis is of high importance. Thin layer chromatography and near infrared spectroscopy coupled with partial least squares regression were used for a rapid quantification of incensole acetate in the resins of five Boswellia species. The findings showed that the acetylated fraction of Boswellia papyrifera resin (MeOH extract) yielded the maximum amount of incensole acetate (32.87%) followed by n-hexane (14.66%) and ethyl acetate (2.84%), while no incensole acetate was found in the resins from four other species. The results obtained by non-destructive NIR spectroscopy are in complete agreement with the results obtained by HPLC, suggesting that the two alternative methods provide fast quantitative analysis of incensole acetate in B. papyrifera.

Extraction of bioactive compounds from vegetable oils pomaces

Frankincense can be obtained from various species of the genus Boswellia and, interestingly, it has been employed for medicinal, religious, and sacrificial purposes for over 5000 years. There are a number of triterpenes, such as ursanes and oleanane-type triterpenes, which are the major natural products of the resin of frankincense. Since the first isolation of β-Boswellic acid (BA) from Boswellia in 1898, the isolation and structural assignment of other BA derivatives and other terpenoids has continued. A large scale of these naturally isolated derivatives was prepared via partial synthesis, which allowed creation of a library of BA derivatives. The synthetic modifications have taken place mostly on rings A and C of the pentacyclic terpene skeleton. Based on potent anticancer and antiinflammatory effects of natural BAs, interesting chemical diversity has been generated on BA scaffolds via ring A modification at the C3-OH and C24-CO2H moieties. Interestingly, these semisynthetic BAs possess potent anticancer and antiinflammatory activities towards various cancer cells and a SAR study showed that an amino group and some heterocyclic rings attached to ring A possess better activity. Detailed mechanisms of action were performed on some BA derivatives. Moreover, a few fascinating cembrene derivatives have been isolated from Boswellia species. Among these are the incensole and incensole acetate, which were synthetically modified and tested for antidepression activities. There are seven reported total syntheses of incensole and incensole derivatives.

Boscartins L–O: Cembrane-type diterpenoids from the gum resin of Boswellia sacra Flueck.

Four undescribed cembrane-type diterpenoids, boscartins L–O, as well as five known compounds (1S, 3R, 11S, 12R, 7E)-1,12-epoxy-4-methylenecembr-7- ene- 3,11-diol, isoincensole oxide, incensole oxide, incensole acetate and incensole oxide acetate were isolated from the gum resin of Boswellia sacra Flueck. (Burseraceae). The structures of these compounds were elucidated by extensive 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopic and mass spectrometric analysis, as well as comparisons with known compounds. The absolute configurations of the known compound (1S, 3R, 7E, 11S, 12R)-1,12-epoxy-4-methylenecembr-7-ene-3,11-diol was unequivocally confirmed by single-crystal X-ray diffraction analysis with Cu Kα radiation. Incensole acetate exhibited significant hepatoprotective activity at 10 μM against paracetamol-induced HepG2 cell damage.

Evidence for the involvement of a GABAergic mechanism in the effectiveness of natural and synthetically modified incensole derivatives in neuropharmacological disorders: A computational and pharmacological approach

In the course of our continuing exploration for novel bioactive lead compounds (s) from the species Boswellia, we have recently reported incensole derivatives isolated from Boswellia papyrifera Hochst. Given the known antidepressant-like effects of incensole and incensole acetate, we herein present that the low dose intraperitoneal administration of incensole derivatives, namely, incensfuran and incensone, showed significant antidepressant-like effects in the forced swim test (FST) and tail suspension test (TST). Furthermore, these compounds were evaluated for their anxiolytic potential in the elevated plus maze (EPM) and light dark box (LDB) tests and anticonvulsant effects in pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced seizure tests. In the EPM test, administration of these compounds led to dose-dependent increases in open arm entries and in the time spent in EPM open arms. Similar results were obtained in the LDB test, wherein compounds these caused significant increases in the number of transitions between lit and dark compartments and the time spent in the lit compartment. The anxiolytic-like effects in the EPM were not reversed by pretreatment with flumazenil, whereas PTZ and bicuculline (BIC) completely abolished the anxiolytic effects, showing the involvement of the non-benzodiazepine binding sites of GABAA receptors. All four compounds induced significantly elevated brain GABA levels, indicating the involvement of a GABAergic mechanism. Additionally, molecular docking was conducted to elucidate the mode of action for the anxiolytic and anticonvulsant effects of these derivatives. Moreover, these compounds also possess drug-like properties and excellent ADMET profiles.

Incensole acetate prevents beta-amyloid-induced neurotoxicity in human olfactory bulb neural stem cells.

β-Amyloid peptide (Aβ) is a potent neurotoxic protein associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD) which causes oxidative damage to neurons. Incensole acetate (IA) is a major constituent of Boswellia carterii resin, which has anti-inflammatory and protective properties against damage of a large verity of neural subtypes. However, this neuroprotective effect was not studied on human olfactory bulb neural stem cells (hOBNSCs). Herein, we evaluated this effect and studied the underlying mechanisms. Exposure to Aβ25-35 (5 and 10 μM for 24 h) inhibited proliferation (revealed by downregulation of Nestin and Sox2 gene expression), and induced differentiation (marked by increased expression of the immature neuronal marker Map2 and the astrocyte marker Gfap) of hOBNSCs. However, pre-treatment with IA (100 μM for 4 h) stimulated proliferation and differentiation of neuronal, rather than astrocyte, markers. Moreover, IA pretreatment significantly decreased the Aβ25-35-induced viability loss, apoptotic rate (revealed by decreased caspase 3 activity and protein expression, downregulated expression of Bax, caspase 8, cyto c, caspase3, and upregulated expression of Bcl2 mRNAs and proteins, in addition to elevated mitochondrial membrane potential and lowered intracellular Ca+2). IA reduced Aβ-mediated ROS production (revealed by decreased intracellular ROS and MDA level, and increased SOD, CAT, and GPX contents), and inhibited Aβ-induced inflammation (marked by down-regulated expression of IL1b, TNFa, NfKb, and Cox2 genes). IA also significantly upregulated mRNA and protein expression of Erk1/2 and Nrf2. Notably, IA increased the antioxidant enzyme heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) expression and this effect was reversed by HO-1 inhibitor zinc protoporphyrin (ZnPP) leading to reduction of the neuroprotective effect of IA against Aβ-induced neurotoxicity. These findings clearly show the ability of IA to initiate proliferation and differentiation of neuronal progenitors in hOBNSCs and induce HO-1 expression, thereby protecting the hOBNSCs cells from Aβ25-35-induced oxidative cell death. Thus, IA may be applicable as a potential preventive agent for AD by its effect on hOBNSCs and could also be used as an adjuvant to hOBNSCs in cellular therapy of neurodegenerative diseases.

Chemical Composition of the Essential Oil of Trianthema portulacastrum L. Aerial Parts and Potential Antimicrobial and Phytotoxic Activities of its Extract

The essential oil of the aerial parts of Trianthema portulacastrum L. was analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Fourty four compounds were identified, representing 92.27% of the oil. Terpenes represent the major constituents (72.98%) including monoterpenes (35.69%), sesquiterpenes (30.75%) and diterpene derivates (6.54%). The major chemical constituents were hexahydro-farnesyl acetone (27.57%), verbenene (12.32%), incensole acetate (6.54%), 3-p-manthane (2.88%), cis-carvyl propanoate (1.98%), trans-p-mentha-2,8-dien-ol (1.91%). The alcoholic extract showed significant antifungal activity and moderate antibacterial activity. The plant extract at 6 mg ml-1 inhibited the germination of Brassica tournefortii, Cenchrus echinatus and Lactuca sativa by 69.8%, 82.2% and 100%, respectively. The seedling growth of these plants was also inhibited in a concentration-dependent manner. The radicle of the three tested plants was highly sensitive to allelochemicals. The allelopathic activity of T. portulacastrum could be used in controlling these noxious weeds (B. tournefortii and C. echinatus) as an ecofriendly bio-herbicide.

5-epi-Incensole: synthesis, X-ray crystal structure and absolute configuration by means of ECD and VCD studies in solution and solid state

Incensole 1 and its acetate 2, found in incense, demonstrate interesting biological activities. Incensole acetate 2 was prepared on a large scale by employing the Paul and Jauch protocol from the crude extracts of Boswellia papyrifera Hochst. 5-epi-Incensole 3, obtained as colorless crystals, was prepared from incensole acetate via three steps; deacetylation, oxidation and reduction. The structure of 5-epi-incensole 3 was elucidated by means of spectroscopic data analysis, and the absolute configuration was established by single crystal X-ray analysis in combination with electronic and vibrational circular dichroism. In particular, the applicability of the solid-state ECD/TDDFT protocol to a compound with only two non-conjugated alkene chromophores was verified.

Understanding Boswellia papyrifera tree secondary metabolites through bark spectral analysis

Decision makers are concerned whether to tap or rest Boswellia Papyrifera trees. Tapping for the production of frankincense is known to deplete carbon reserves from the tree leading to production of less viable seeds, tree carbon starvation and ultimately tree mortality. Decision makers use traditional experience without considering the amount of metabolites stored or depleted from the stem-bark of the tree. This research was designed to come up with a non-destructive B. papyrifera tree metabolite estimation technique relevant for management using spectroscopy. The concentration of biochemicals (metabolites) found in the tree bark was estimated through spectral analysis.Initially, a random sample of 33 trees was selected, the spectra of bark measured with an Analytical Spectral Device (ASD) spectrometer. Bark samples were air dried and ground. Then, 10g of sample was soaked in Petroleum ether to extract crude metabolites. Further chemical analysis was conducted to quantify and isolate pure metabolite compounds such as incensole acetate and boswellic acid. The crude metabolites, which relate to frankincense produce, were compared to plant properties (such as diameter and crown area) and reflectance spectra of the bark. Moreover, the extract was compared to the ASD spectra using partial least square regression technique (PLSR) and continuum removed spectral analysis. The continuum removed spectral analysis were performed, on two wavelength regions (1275–1663 and 1836–2217) identified through PLSR, using absorption features such as band depth, area, position, asymmetry and the width to characterize and find relationship with the bark extracts.The results show that tree properties such as diameter at breast height (DBH) and the crown area of untapped and healthy trees were strongly correlated to the amount of stored crude metabolites. In addition, the PLSR technique applied to the first derivative transformation of the reflectance spectrum was found to estimate the concentration of the metabolites reliably at higher coefficient of determination. The most influential maximum slope positions of the spectrum obtained through PLSR analysis of the petroleum ether extract (crude metabolites) and the pure compounds (incensole acetate and boswellic acid) were found to coincide and concentrate in the region between 1383–1406nm and 1861–1896nm. However, analysis on these two individual specific region absorption features relationship with the bark extract, using the continuum removed approach, was not as robust as the PLSR analysis.This reveals that the ability to estimate metabolites in the stem-bark of B. papyrifera using spectral analysis opens a new approach on how to manage B. papyrifera tree. Development of such technique provides quick and reliable information for decision makers to decide on when to tap or for how long to rest the trees. However, to implement the technique, further research need to be conducted to determine how B. papyrifera tree metabolites vary due to tapping. In addition, research to determine the lowest metabolites quantity threshold, useful for management of the tree, needs to be conducted.

Anxiolytic and anti-depressant effects ofBoswelliaextract on CD1Mus musculus

Frankincense is obtained from the trees of the genus Boswellia and has been used historically for many reasons, including medicinal purposes. Previous research indicates that mice treated with a purified component from frankincense, incensole acetate (IA), had a decrease in anxious behavior during anxiety tests. Boswellia extract can be purchased from General Nutrition Centers (GNC). Since IA has been found to be have antidepressant properties in mice, this study investigated whether the Boswellia extract from GNC, e.g. unpurified IA, would also have anti-depressant/anti-anxiety affect. Sixty CD1 mice, 30 male and 30 female, were treated for approximately 25 days and were tested for the anti-depressant and anti-anxiety effects of Boswellia extract and sertraline (Zoloft®) compared to the control group. Each group of mice was analyzed by three behavioral tests: an open-field test, tail suspension test, and marble-burying test to determine the effects of these drugs. It was found that female mice treated with sertraline demonstrated significant reduction of anxiety behaviors as measured in the open field test, indicating reduced anxiety. Treatment with Boswellia, on the other hand, did not show a significant reduction in anxiety behaviors in either gender of mice. The tail suspension results showed that both Boswellia and sertraline significantly increased immobility time. These results suggest the Boswellia and sertraline reduce anxiety, but not depression in CD1 mice.