Incarceration Experiences Research Articles

Prenatal incarceration exposure and adverse COVID-19 related experiences during pregnancy

ABSTRACT This study examines the relationship between exposure to incarceration and stressful experiences endured during the initial months of the COVID-19 pandemic (June-December 2020). Using data from the 2020 Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System (PRAMS), multiple Poisson and logistic regression models were used to assess the association between incarceration of a woman or her partner in the year before birth and the likelihood of experiencing 13 different types of adverse experiences due to the COVID-19 pandemic between June and December 2020. Results indicate that women’s incarceration exposure – either personally or vicariously through a partner – was associated with more total COVID-19 experiences. Additionally, women with incarceration exposure encountered several adverse experiences, including problems paying rent, mortgage, or bills, worried food would run out, felt more anxious, felt more depressed, had more verbal augments or conflicts with husband/partner, and husband/partner was more physically, sexually, or emotionally aggressive, than their non-incarceration-exposed counterparts. Implications of the findings for theory and public policy are discussed.

Race differences in the impact of juvenile detention on likelihood of young adult incarceration of males aging out of care

Youth involved in the child welfare system are more likely to be involved in the juvenile justice system, and juvenile justice involvement is linked to increased likelihood of subsequent incarceration. For these reasons, overrepresentation of Black youth in the child welfare system contributes to racial disparities in incarceration rates. It is, therefore, important to study youth transitioning out of foster care to examine how their young adult outcomes differ by race. Employing the National Youth in Transition Database (NYTD), this study compared the incarceration experiences of non-Hispanic White and Black males aging out of foster care. Specifically, this study examined the impact of juvenile detention on the likelihood of incarceration ages 19 to 21and factors that mediated this relationship. Notably, 33.5% of White males and 30.7% of Black males in the sample experienced juvenile detention. Findings indicate that juvenile detention disproportionately impacts Black males who age out of foster care compared to their White counterparts. The direct effect of juvenile detention on reported incarceration between age 19–21 for Black males in the sample was OR = 2.31 compared to OR = 1.91 for White males. Reported incarceration between age 17–19 significantly mediated the relationship between juvenile confinement and incarceration age 19–21 for both Black and White males in the sample, although this effect was substantially stronger for Black males. Research and policy implications are discussed.

Maternal Incarceration and Adolescent Health Risk Behavior Patterns: Exploring Gender and Racial Differences

Objectives: Research suggests that adolescents exposed to maternal incarceration have higher odds of being classified into more severe health risk behavior patterns than those without such experiences. However, the potentially heterogeneous effect of maternal imprisonment on adolescents with distinct individual characteristics remains under-investigated. This study aimed to advance the knowledge base by examining its impact based on adolescent gender and race. Methods: Specifically, this research used a nationwide dataset to examine the moderating effect of adolescent gender and racial background on the association between maternal incarceration and adolescent health risk behavior patterns. Results: The interaction terms were not statistically significant in predicting health risk behavior patterns, except for some trends toward significance worth noting. Specifically, black adolescents with maternal incarceration experiences trended toward lower odds, and Hispanic and multiracial or other adolescents trended toward higher odds of being classified into Class 3 than Class 2, compared to their white counterparts. Additionally, multiracial or other adolescents with maternal incarceration experiences trended toward higher odds of being classified into Class 4 than Class 2, compared to their white peers. Conclusions: Maternal incarceration may have a distinct impact on the health risk behavior patterns of adolescents with different racial backgrounds.

Perceptions of Community Corrections and Treatment Experience: A Qualitative Study Among People With Incarceration Histories Receiving Outpatient Methadone Treatment.

Community correctional experiences among individuals receiving methadone treatment (MT) for opioid use disorder (OUD) are poorly understood. We qualitatively investigated perceptions of community corrections and treatment experiences among individuals with criminal-legal system experience currently receiving outpatient MT. From January to December 2017, we recruited 42 individuals with history of criminal-legal system involvement enrolled in outpatient MT at a low-barrier nonprofit organization operating multiple clinics in Connecticut. An experienced qualitative research team conducted one-to-one, in-person, semistructured interviews about incarceration and treatment experiences with individuals receiving MT. Participants completed a demographics survey. The interviews were audiorecorded, transcribed, de-identified, and independently coded using NVivo. Participants described the community corrections system as restrictive and abstinence-focused. Most participants described positive perceptions of and experiences with community corrections officers (CCOs), yet described negative perceptions of and experiences with the community corrections system overall. Participants perceived CCOs to have limited knowledge of OUD and MT. Participants described a range of CCO judgment toward their OUD, with some appearing understanding and nonjudgmental while others were perceived to have stigma and prejudice. Few participants noted assistance from CCOs with seeking MT or community-based substance use disorder care. Some participants desired improved treatment facilitation, but viewed forced or coercive treatment negatively. To our knowledge, this is the first qualitative study to examine community corrections experience among people receiving outpatient medication for OUD. While individuals receiving MT have negative experiences with the community corrections system, they perceive individual CCOs positively. Interventions addressing gaps in CCOs knowledge of OUD and MT are needed to optimize support for individuals on probation or parole with OUD. Provision of OUD treatment facilitation appears desirable to some individuals in community supervision.

Incarceration's lingering health effects on Black men: impacts persist into retirement

<abstract><sec> <title>Background</title> <p>The unique challenges Black men face within the criminal justice system underscore structural and systemic factors driving widespread inequalities. The long-term effects of these challenges on economic, health, and social outcomes as individuals transition to retirement remain poorly understood, highlighting a critical gap in our knowledge of life trajectories long after justice system involvement.</p> </sec><sec> <title>Objectives</title> <p>This study investigated the enduring health impacts of incarceration on Black men, particularly focusing on the transition into retirement. It aimed to explore the influence of race and gender on experiences of incarceration before age 50, and how such experiences affected self-rated health during the retirement transition.</p> </sec><sec> <title>Methods</title> <p>Utilizing data from the Health and Retirement Study, which followed individuals aged 50–59 for up to thirty years, this research examined the interplay of race, gender, incarceration history, and self-rated health during the retirement transition. Logistic regression and path modeling were employed for data analysis.</p> </sec><sec> <title>Results</title> <p>Logistic regression results indicated that being Black, male, and having lower educational attainment significantly increased the likelihood of experiencing incarceration before the age of 50 (p < 0.05). This suggests that Black men with lower levels of education are at the greatest risk of incarceration. The path model revealed a correlation between incarceration experiences before age 50 and poorer self-rated health at the time of retirement.</p> </sec><sec> <title>Conclusion</title> <p>The findings highlighted the disproportionately high risk of incarceration among Black men, especially those with lower educational attainment, and its persistent negative impacts on health decades later, including during the transition into retirement. Addressing structural racism and the mass incarceration of Black men is crucial for achieving racial health equity as individuals retire.</p> </sec></abstract>

Relationship between Perceived Maternal Rejection and Neuroticism Delinquency Risk Trait among Female Juvenile Delinquents in Selected Rehabilitation Institutions in Kenya

Juvenile delinquency has been a major problem in most parts of the world including Kenya due to its complexities attributed to its dynamic nature among different categories of children. Gender-based delinquency prevalence studies have identified female juvenile delinquency to be a developing key delinquency challenge as compared to male juvenile delinquency. In addition, research indicates that female juvenile delinquents are more prone to mental health problems attributed to incarceration experiences as compared to male juvenile delinquents. The need to focus more on female juvenile delinquency risk and protective factors studies is thus crucial so as to unravel the prevailing juvenile female delinquency complexities. The purpose of the study was therefore to examine the relationship between perceived maternal rejection and neuroticism delinquency risk trait among female juvenile delinquents in selected rehabilitation institutions in Kenya. Interpersonal Acceptance-Rejection Theory (IPARTheory) was identified to be the key theory that provided the theoretical framework for this study. The research was a correlational study and employed a survey research design in data collection. The study involved 186 female juvenile delinquents incarcerated in selected rehabilitation institutions in Kenya. Purposive sampling was used to select the three government girls’ rehabilitation institutions in Kenya involved in this study. Maternal Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaire and Neuroticism Questionnaire were used to collect data. The Statistical Package for Social Scientist (SPSS) version 25 aided in the analysis of quantitative data. To establish the levels of perceived maternal rejection and neuroticism, the data were subjected to descriptive statistics analysis for calculations of percentages, means and frequencies. The data was also subjected to inferential statistical analysis and employed Spearman’s Rank correlation to establish the relationship between maternal rejection and neuroticism. The analyzed data was then presented in form of tables. The study findings indicated that the participants perceived more of maternal rejection than acceptance (M = 163.8) and significantly high levels of neuroticism (M = 28.33). The study found that there was a moderate positive correlation between the perceived maternal rejection and neuroticism [rs(186) = .565, p < .001] among its participants. Understanding of this relationship and its moderators can help in designing accurate female juvenile delinquency prevention and treatment programs.

Enhancing the Focus: How Does Parental Incarceration Fit into the Overall Picture of Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) and Positive Childhood Experiences (PCEs)?

Despite the five million children in the U.S. with an incarcerated parent, there is limited research on risk and protective factors for this population. We analyzed data from the National Survey for Children's Health (2018) to: (1) examine associations among parental incarceration and other adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), (2) characterize the association between parental incarceration and youth mental health outcomes, (3) examine differences in positive childhood experiences (PCEs; collective socialization, community engagement, neighborhood amenities, and family problem solving) by parental incarceration status, (4) examine whether PCEs were protective against mental health problems and if there was an interaction with parental incarceration status, and (5) examine the interaction between PCEs, parental incarceration, and ACEs on mental health problems. Results revealed that children with incarcerated parents had higher odds of experiencing other ACEs, higher odds of having mental health problems, and experienced fewer PCEs compared to children without incarcerated parents. Further, although PCEs were associated with a lower odds of mental health problems for both children with and without incarcerated parents, they did not mitigate the negative impact of parental incarceration on mental health outcomes. While PCEs attenuated the association between ACEs and mental health, parental incarceration status did not significantly moderate the interaction. These results highlight vulnerabilities and potential protective factors for children with incarcerated parents and have important implications for the development of multilevel intervention strategies that seek to promote resilience and reduce risk for this population.

Implementation and Effectiveness of In-Prison Programs for Intimate Partner Violence Perpetrators: Evidence From Spain

The article describes the supply and demand of programs for imprisoned perpetrators of intimate partner violence and their consequences on recidivism in a Spanish penal system with multiple interventions. Four aspects are studied with descriptive, multinomial, survival, and canonical correlation analyses—programs’ features (number, content, duration, combinations, compliance); users and nonusers’ characteristics (socioeconomic profiles, criminological histories, incarceration experiences); the ensuing outcomes (prison behavior and postrelease recidivism); and the profiles of the clients benefiting the most and least from them. The results show great heterogeneity in program supply and in how they are taken, and marked differences in the profiles of nonusers and users of programs of different durations. This helps interpret the main finding that short-program users have lower rates of recidivism, partly due to the programs’ more appropriate formats and partly due to the users’ less problematic characteristics and higher opportunities to take them. Policy recommendations are accordingly made.

Examining the Association between Recent Maternal Incarceration and Adolescents’ Sleep Patterns, Dietary Behaviors, and Physical Activity Involvement

Maternal incarceration has become an increasingly common life event among adolescents in the U.S., especially those from disadvantaged backgrounds. Evidence suggests that maternal incarceration is a risk factor for adolescents’ internalizing and externalizing problems. However, its collateral consequences on adolescents’ sleep patterns, dietary behaviors and physical activity involvement remain unclear. This study uses the Fragile Family and Child Wellbeing Study dataset (N = 3262) to examine the prevalence of risk behaviors related to sleep, diet, and physical exercise among adolescents with maternal incarceration histories and assess the relationship between maternal incarceration and these behavioral health risks. Findings suggested that a significantly lower proportion of adolescents with maternal incarceration experiences consumed breakfast for at least four days a week than those without maternal incarceration experiences (41.78% vs. 52.76%, p = 0.009), a higher proportion of them consumed fast food for at least two days a week (57.35% vs. 48.61%, p = 0.035), had at least two sweetened drinks per day (71.92% vs. 62.21%, p = 0.018), and reported more days having problems staying asleep per week (1.70 vs. 1.26, p = 0.008). Regression analyses suggested that adolescents with maternal incarceration experiences were more likely to have problems staying asleep (B = 0.44, p = 0.012) than those without maternal incarceration experiences.

Maternal incarceration and adolescent girls’ risk of substance-exposed pregnancy, STIs, and HIV

Research suggests that adolescents with maternal incarceration experiences are more likely to engage in risky sexual behaviors and have sexual health problems than those without maternal incarceration experiences. However, the sexual health risks of adolescent girls and the role of maternal incarceration on their risks remain unknown. This study used the FFCW dataset (N = 1,587) to examine the interrelated risks of substance-exposed pregnancy (SEP), STIs, and HIV among adolescent girls with maternal incarceration histories and determine the association between exposure to maternal incarceration and these sexual health risks. Bivariate analyses suggested that compared to their counterparts without maternal incarceration experiences, a significantly higher proportion of adolescent girls with such experiences were at risk of SEP (12.24 % vs 2.79 %, χ2 = 13.77, p <.001), STIs (10.45 % vs 3.43 %, χ2 = 8.82, p = .003), and HIV (10.45 % vs 4.23 %, χ2 = 5.78 %, p = .016). Regression analyses revealed that maternal incarceration was associated with significantly higher odds of SEP risk among adolescent girls (OR = 3.94, 95 % CI = 1.37–11.34, p = .011). This study suggests the need for sexual health intervention targeting adolescent girls with maternal incarceration histories. Future research on explanatory mechanisms linking maternal incarceration and sexual health risks is necessary to inform services for adolescent girls from extremely fragile families.

Family incarceration and prison adaptation: Investigating the impact of family incarceration history on prison misconduct

The intergenerational transmission of crime (ITC) perspective suggests that children of those who engage in crime are more likely to end up offending themselves. Specifically, they are more likely to engage in crime, be arrested, and be incarcerated compared to children of parents without a criminal record. What remains unclear is the effect parental offending has on the prison.experience of their offspring who are incarcerated. Additionally, the impact of sibling incarceration on one's incarceration experiences has not been examined. Drawing on the ITC framework, rule breaking behavior may extend to the prison context. Indeed, the few studies that have examined this relationship find that incarcerated persons who have a family incarceration history are more likely to have rule violations, which suggests family history may be a risk factor for misconduct. To investigate, the current study uses coarsened exact matching and data from the Survey of Prison Inmates to examine the misconduct of incarcerated persons with and without a family history of incarceration net of the effects of other covariates. After matching, results indicate that there is no statistically significant differences in misconduct between those with no family history of incarceration compared to those with a sibling or a parent who has been incarcerated.

“I feel like marijuana is the only drug that wouldn’t kill me”: perceptions of cannabis use in previously incarcerated Black men who have sex with other men

BackgroundFragmented state laws have impacted cannabis uptake and perceptions in the USA. Little research has explored the attitudes, beliefs, and social network influences of young Black men who have sex with men (BMSM) who have experienced incarceration and use cannabis. While problematic cannabis use is not well defined and understudied, scholars have found that a person’s social network can mediate problematic substance use and reduce recidivism rates by providing both tangible and emotional support. This analysis examines how social networks contribute to cannabis perceptions and use among BMSM with criminal legal system involvement in Chicago, IL, and Houston TX.MethodsResearchers conducted interviews with 25 cis gender Black men informed by life course theory, with a focus on the role of social networks, incarceration, and other life experiences in substance use. All interviews were audio-recorded, de-identified, and transcribed; participants were compensated $50. A deductive-inductive thematic analysis was used to analyze all qualitative data collected.ResultsTwelve BMSM in Chicago and 13 BMSM in Houston (M = 26.6 years old, SD = 3.7) were interviewed. A majority identified as gay (56%), with 12 participants (48%) reporting having a high school diploma or equivalent; their average age of first substance use was 15.2 (SD = 2.9). Participants perceived cannabis usage to be categorically distinct from other intoxicating substance usage, with many describing it as not harmful and potentially beneficial. Three themes shaped their choices and attitudes regarding cannabis and “hard” drugs—social networks, need fulfillment, and knowledge of risk.ConclusionParticipant descriptions of cannabis use emphasize their drug-use behavior as being produced by agent decision-making and risk assessment. Future work should expand on how these decisions are made, and how social networks can be leveraged to encourage non-harmful drug consumption behaviors.

“We’re Still Human”: A Reproductive Justice Analysis of the Experiences of Criminalized Latina Mothers

ABSTRACT Women’s incarceration has significantly increased in the United States over the past 40 years. Individuals experience numerous social, political, and economic barriers following incarceration; however, little is known about the incarceration experiences of Latina mothers in Texas, who are disproportionately affected. This study aims to examine the experiences of Latina mothers impacted by incarceration, using reproductive justice as a sensitizing lens. We used a qualitative description design and twelve Latina mothers were interviewed. We used semi-structured, individual, interviews to address the research question, “What are the experiences of Latina mothers impacted by incarceration?” We applied the reproductive justice framework to inductively sensitize the experiences with respect to the right to bodily autonomy, right to have or not have children, and right to parent in safe, sustainable environments following arrest. An overarching theme (We’re still human) and four major themes (I did whatever they wanted me to do; It’s me against the world; Even through the pain you push through; Our voices haven’t been heard loud enough) emerged from our analysis of interview data. These themes describe experiences of discrimination, trauma, barriers, resiliency, and desires, following arrest. The findings indicate a need for more research that takes an intersectional approach; policy reform that humanizes those influenced by arrest; bridging initiatives on the individual, relational, community, and societal levels; and making probation and medication-assisted therapy services mother-centered.

The Asian American Movement and the Church: Laying the Foundations for Asian American Theology

This piece outlines the importance of the Asian American Movement (AAM) for the church and for the field of Asian American theology and ongoing discussions thereof. It contextualizes the AAM in a particular demographic moment when US-born Asian Americans outnumbered immigrants for the first and only time in American history. Using the example of Japanese American Methodist clergy active in the AAM, it considers how their experiences of state-sponsored incarceration shaped a firm belief that ethnic and racial identity should inform how church leaders do ministry, teach the Bible, and engage society. In particular, their incarceration experiences cemented a lifelong commitment to justice and to the liberation of oppressed peoples both in the USA and overseas.

Developing the "Oppression-to-Incarceration Cycle" of Black American and First Nations Australian Trans Women: Applying the Intersectionality Research for Transgender Health Justice Framework.

Trans women are disproportionately incarcerated in the United States and Australia relative to the general population. Stark racial and ethnic disparities in incarceration rates mean that Black American and First Nations Australian trans women are overrepresented in incarceration relative to White and non-Indigenous cisgender and trans people. Informed by the Intersectionality Research for Transgender Health Justice (IRTHJ) framework, the current study drew upon lived experiences of Black American and First Nations Australian trans women to develop a conceptual model demonstrating how interlocking forces of oppression inform, maintain, and exacerbate pathways to incarceration and postrelease experiences. Using a flexible, iterative, and reflexive thematic analytic approach, we analyzed qualitative data from 12 semistructured interviews with formerly incarcerated trans women who had been incarcerated in sex-segregated male facilities. Three primary domains-pathways to incarceration, experiences during incarceration, and postrelease experiences-were used to develop the "oppression-to-incarceration cycle." This study represents a novel application of the IRTHJ framework that seeks to name intersecting power relations, disrupt the status quo, and center embodied knowledge in the lived realities of formerly incarcerated Black American and First Nations Australian trans women.

Perceived health status and satisfaction with healthcare services of detained male individuals: a survey in Italy

ObjectivesThis study investigated the perceived health status and satisfaction with prison healthcare services of detained male individuals in Italy. Study designA cross-sectional study was performed between March and June 2021. MethodsOf 800 male detained individuals who were invited to participate in the study, 632 returned the self-administered questionnaire, resulting in a response rate of 79%. ResultsOverall, 72.8% of participants reported that they were moderately or completely satisfied with their health status, and 27.2% stated that they were not at all satisfied. Moreover, 66.2% of participants reported that they had at least one health problem or disease, compared with 34% at the time of incarceration, with 35% reporting multiple health problems/diseases. In total, 10.1% of participants requested healthcare when a health problem occurred, and 12.4% were always satisfied with the healthcare that they received. Significant determinants of dissatisfaction with health status were older age, reported health problems/diseases, suicide attempts, emotional problems and no working activity in prison. Significant determinants of dissatisfaction with healthcare services were younger age, health problems at incarceration, suicide attempts and multiple experiences of incarceration. ConclusionsThis study shows that detained male individuals have multiple and frequently unmet health needs. Some of the reported health problems or diseases were present at the time of incarceration, but these often worsened and/or increased during detention. This study highlights the need to promote evidence-based intervention to strengthen the role of healthcare services provided in prisons.

Prevalence and Correlates of Incarceration Among Trans Men, Nonbinary People, and Two-Spirit People in Canada.

In the United States, sexual and gender minority populations are known to experience both higher rates of incarceration and more harmful experiences while incarcerated. However, little is known about incarceration rates or experiences among these populations in Canada or among trans men, nonbinary people, and Indigenous Two-Spirit people. This community-based research study analyzed anonymous self-completed survey data from gay, bisexual, trans, and queer men, and nonbinary and Two-Spirit people to determine the prevalence and correlates of lifetime incarceration among trans men, nonbinary, and Two-Spirit participants. Overall, 5.7% of trans participants, 10.6% of nonbinary participants, and 19.7% of Two-Spirit participants reported being incarcerated in their lifetime, all higher than the prevalence among cisgender non-Two-Spirit participants (3.7%). Multivariable logistic regression models revealed both similar and different correlates of incarceration for trans, nonbinary, and Two-Spirit participants, including older age, less education, experiences of forced sex as a minor, hepatitis C virus (HCV) and HIV diagnoses, substance use, and being less out about one's sexuality. Our findings highlight the disproportionate and inequitable incarceration of trans men, nonbinary, and Two-Spirit people and underscore the need for access to gender diverse, culturally competent HCV and HIV screening, prevention, treatment, and harm reduction in correctional facilities.

Association between incarceration and psychotic experiences in a general population sample

Incarceration of individuals with mental disorders is an important public health topic. While incarceration appears to be associated with schizophrenia and related psychotic disorders, to the best of our knowledge, no study has examined the association between incarceration and psychotic experiences (PEs). The present study aimed to examine whether individuals with PEs had higher odds of incarceration among a general population sample using data from Baltimore and New York City (N = 974). We fitted three regression models to examine the association between incarceration and PEs, using hierarchical adjustments for sociodemographic factors, adverse childhood experiences, and neighborhood disruption. The odds ratio (OR) for incarceration was attenuated with inclusion of more covariates in the model but remained statistically significant even at the highest level of adjustment (OR = 2.12, 95% CI = 1.30 to 3.46). Findings were similar when individually examining delusional mood, delusions of reference and persecution, and hallucination. For delusions of control, a significant association was not found in the highest level of adjustment. The present study provides novel information on the association between incarceration and PEs, adjusted for sociodemographic and psychosocial confounders. Taken in the context of prior studies, these data further support the need to address the high prevalence of psychosis across all aspects of the criminal justice system. Future studies should employ longitudinal data and objective outcome measurements.

Victimization Within and Beyond the Prison Walls: A Latent Profile Analysis of Transgender and Gender Diverse Adults.

Background: Transgender and gender diverse (TGD) people are disproportionately incarcerated in the United States relative to the general population. A dearth of quantitative research has explored victimization as a risk factor for incarceration as well as the victimization experiences of formerly incarcerated TGD populations. Methods: In 2019, 574 TGD adults completed an online survey assessing sociodemographics, victimization across settings, and incarceration history. Latent class analysis was used to identify two sets of latent subgroups based on respondent's victimization experiences: 1) lifetime victimization (low; moderate; and high) and 2) classes of victimization while incarcerated (low; moderate; and high). Bivariate and multivariable logistic regression analyses examined sociodemographic, mental health, and lifetime victimization experiences associated with lifetime incarceration (Outcome 1). Among those with incarceration histories, bivariate hierarchical logistic regression analyses also explored the association between gender identity, race/ethnicity, HIV status, visual gender non-conformity, and class of victimization during incarceration (Outcome 2) . Results: Participants' mean age was 31.4 (SD = 11.2), 43.4% had a non-binary gender identity, 81.5% were White, non-Hispanic, 2.1% were living with HIV, and 13.2% had been incarcerated. In the multivariable model for Outcome 1, high levels of victimization, age, being a racial/ethnic minority, being a trans woman, living with HIV, and past-12-month polysubstance use were all associated with increased odds of lifetime incarceration (p-values < 0.05). In the bivariate hierarchical logistic regression analyses for Outcome 2, living with HIV and having a visually gender non-conforming expression were significantly associated with elevated odds of experiencing high levels of victimization while incarcerated (p-values < 0.05). Conclusion: Findings document the relationships between victimization and incarceration among TGD people as well as identify the subpopulations at greater risk for incarceration and experiencing victimization while incarcerated. Efforts are needed to prevent victimization across the life course, including while incarcerated and support TGD individuals in coping with the negative sequelae of victimization and incarceration experiences.

Can “race‐neutral” program eligibility requirements in criminal justice have disparate effects? An examination of race, ethnicity, and prison industry employment

AbstractResearch SummaryThis study assesses whether racial and ethnic disparities exist in prison industry employment and whether seemingly race‐ and ethnicity‐neutral eligibility requirements contribute to any such disparities. We examine whether there are racial/ethnic disparities in industrial prison work, the extent to which disparities are explained by administrative policies, and the conditions under which disparities are most pronounced. Using 10 years of prison administrative data from Ohio, this study employs multilevel and mediation analyses to examine the effects of race and ethnicity on the odds of working an industrial prison job. Results suggest that Black and Hispanic incarcerated persons (IPs) are less likely to work industry jobs than White IPs. The majority of this disparity stems from program requirements; however, some disparities maintain even when accounting for requirements. Black IPs who do not meet program requirements are less likely to work than White IPs who do not meet program requirements. Racial disparities are smaller in facilities with greater racial heterogeneity among correctional staff.Policy ImplicationsIn our discussion, we underscore how prison policies can contribute to racially and ethnically disparate incarceration experiences. The results suggest the importance of evaluating prison and other correctional policies that utilize selection criteria that appear race neutral but are likely to be disparate in their consequences. Moreover, policies aimed at diversifying staff may contribute to more equitable prison experiences for non‐White incarcerated people, although doing so does not directly address underlying policy problems that lead to inequalities.