Inca Site Research Articles

Biological Deterioration of an Inca Monument at High Altitude in the Andean Range: A Case Study from Ingapirca’s Temple of the Sun (Ecuador)

Scientific studies concerning the causes and consequences of the biodeterioration of stone monuments located at high altitudes in permanently cold, mountainous regions are scarce. For that reason, this study aimed to detect and identify the bacteria involved in the deterioration of this type of monument. To achieve this goal, we focused on the most important archeological Inca site in the Ecuadorian Andes: Ingapirca’s Temple of the Sun, built approximately 500 years ago at 3.100 m.a.s.l. We first examined the stone surfaces of the temple by scanning electron microscopy and showed the detrimental impact on the mineral structure of the green andesite mineral used to build the temple, caused by crustose lichen thalli and heterotrophic bacteria. Then, we isolated, characterized, and identified several of these bacteria. Most of them multiplied at a wide range of temperatures, from 4 °C to 30 °C, and were thus considered eurypsychrophiles. Actinobacteria and Proteobacteria species dominated the culturable fraction of this community. Several isolates produced metabolites that solubilized mineral phosphates at low temperatures; others solubilized iron-containing mineral fractions in the green andesite rock when tested in vitro. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report related to the biodeterioration of an Inca monument at such an altitude in the Andes range.

Reassessing the seismic hazard in the Cusco area, Peru: New contribution coming from an archaeoseismological survey on Inca remains

Devastated by two earthquakes in historical times (1650 and 1950 CE), the Cusco Basin is now characterized by dense and chaotic urbanization that makes it even more vulnerable. Unfortunately, the large recurrence intervals of the local crustal earthquakes, the shortness of the historical record (∼500 yr) and the persistent lack of palaeoseismological studies hamper considerably the seismic hazard assessment. In such context, the outstanding archaeological heritage of the Cusco area turns out to be a relevant marker of past seismic activity.We carried out a systematic archaeoseismological survey in nine Inca sites close to Cusco and registered almost 3,000 Earthquake Archaeological Effects. Thanks to a semi-quantitative approach, we show a clear anisotropic seismic deformation on the Inca fine stonework, consistent at the regional scale. In Cusco, the architecture exhibits the impact of two different and strong ancient seismic events (M.M. intensity > VII).By combining these results with the analysis of historical photographs, our work supports, the occurrence of an unreported event during Inca times (∼1400–1533 CE). More broadly, by providing new data on the destructive potential of past earthquakes, this study urges us to conduct further research on the faults near Cusco.

The Brutish Museums By Dan Hicks

What is the role of a museum “curator”? To take care of and safeguard the objects in the museum’s collection? Or to cure the misdeeds of the past? Increasingly, it seems that those in charge of museums see themselves not as guardians of their historic treasures, but as the shameful and reluctant custodians of ill-gotten booty. The great collections of the world are falling over themselves to disembarrass themselves of anything that might be associated with a disagreeable part of history. In 2010, Yale University agreed to return a collection of antiquities to Peru, following a court claim by the Peruvian government; the items in the collection had been taken from the Inca site of Machu Pichu in the 1910s. In February 2019, the City of Stuttgart announced that it was returning to what is now Namibia a whip and a bible that were looted in 1893. Most recently, the French National Assembly voted in September 2020 to return 26 artefacts, currently in the Quai Branly-Jacques Chirac Museum, that were taken from the Kingdom of Dahomey following its defeat in the Franco-Dahomean Wars of the 1890s.1 The most famous, and controversial example is, of course, the claim by Greece for the return of the ‘Elgin’ or ‘Parthenon’ (depending on whether you are a ‘keeper’ or a ‘returner’) Marbles from the British Museum. But in every case, there is the same pattern: the wrongs of the past should be righted by repatriation of items of cultural, or totemic, significance.

Calendario metropolitano en El Shincal de Quimivil (Catamarca, Argentina)

This work exposes the results obtained in the Cerro Aterrazado Occidental of the Inca site “El Shincal de Quimivil” located south of the Tawantinsuyu (Catamarca, Argentina). On this topic, two alignments were found with respect to the sunrise, which give us important dates within the Inca calendar. The Cerro Aterrazado Occidental had been a local huaca, reason why it was covered by a zigzag-shaped wall of probable Cuzco construction. Because the Cerro Occidental had been an important ceremonial space of the site, where probably, the calendarical control of the fiestas had been carried out.

Radiocarbon Chronology of the Inca Expansion in Argentina

The purpose of this article is to broaden the information available on the chronology of the Inca expansion in Collasuyu by analyzing all radiocarbon dates obtained in Argentina’s Inca sites. We ev...

L’instrumentalisation des sites archéologiques incas. Questions d’éthique

À l’occasion de l’Indépendance du Pérou, les champions de la nation d’origine créole ont érigé l’Indien étatique inca en ancêtre présentable, éliminant ainsi l’historicité amérindienne de la population. Les restes archéologiques viennent appuyer alors une idéologie indigéniste qui ignore l’Indien sociologique, considéré comme ontologiquement inférieur. Aujourd’hui ces vestiges incas contribuent à construire le roman national : le culte solaire inca est ainsi réinventé sur le site de Sacsayhuaman. Dans quelle mesure les travaux des archéologues peuvent-ils servir d’argument à des idéologies partisanes? Les présidents des Républiques péruvienne et bolivienne ont été intronisés comme souverains préhispaniques, le premier sur le site inca de Machu Picchu, le second à la porte du Soleil de Tiwanaku. Dans quelle mesure les vestiges d’une civilisation peuvent-ils être instrumentalisés par la politique? Désormais les sites incas sont investis par des mystiques venus des États-Unis et d’Europe sous la conduite de néo-chamanes locaux. Ils sont en effet réputés contenir de l’ « énergie » positive. Celle-ci est exploitée par des agences de tourisme mystique. Dans quelle mesure le patrimoine de la nation, entretenu par les services publics, peut-il faire l’objet de profits privés, d’idéologies parfois sectaires et de dommages irréparables? Dans la culture des communautés andines traditionnelles, les ruines préhispaniques avaient une fonction classificatoire et symbolique. Celle-ci disparaît quand le lieu du mythe est remplacé par des sites historiques. Comment respecter la perception indigène des vestiges archéologiques? Tels sont les questions éthiques que cet article entend poser à partir de cas précis et concrets de sites archéologiques sur lesquels l’auteur a mené des enquêtes.

La orientación del ushnu de “El Shincal de Quimivil” (Catamarca, Argentina)

Este trabajo expone una perspectiva arqueoastronómica del sitio inca “El Shincal de Quimivil” ubicado al sur del Tawantinsuyu (Catamarca, Argentina). Diversos autores han sostenido la existencia de orientas astronómicas relacionadas con este asentamiento. Este lugar se compone de numerosas estructuras edilicias como por ejemplo una plaza de 175 m de lado, un ushnu de 16 m de lado y un par de edificios kallanka dentro de la zona pública y varios otros vestigios de igual importancia. A su vez, se elevan sobre los laterales este y oeste de la plaza dos cerros aterrazados con imponentes escaleras. Sostenemos que es importante trabajar lugares alejados del Cuzco, de los cuales aún no se conocen detalles de interrelaciones ideológicas y sus correlatos materiales, que nos podrían dar pistas sobre los mecanismos, estrategias de apropiación y control Inca.

Archaeological Restoration and Heritage Actions in Ollantaytambo

This article is concerned with the history of restoration work carried out over the last 40 years or so in the Inca site of Ollantaytambo, in the Cuzco region of Peru. The information gathered comes mainly from interviews conducted with professionals relevant to the study, as well as from archival work. Rather than dwelling on the appropriateness or not of the technical solutions implemented, from the point of view of international standards and expectations, the focus lies on the underlying reasons that have driven changes in the site´s physical appearance. Factors like restoration principles at work during the various interventions, the role of photography and visibility, the delicate relationship between tangible and intangible heritage, and the influence of tourism in an area visually inspired by the powerful imaginaries of Machu Picchu are explored. Some of the problems identified are associated with processes of puesta en valor, monumentalism, the influence of foreign models, and the role of architect-restorers. It will be argued that the site´s restoration history is problematic in ways that invite critical reassessment and engagement with current international debates on conservation and restoration concepts and practices, like authenticity.

Exploring dietary trends in late Holocene populations from Northwest Argentina: Insights from new data on stable isotope analysis (δ13C and δ15N)

In the territory of Jujuy province, Northwest Argentina (NWA), a marked environmental diversity promoted the emergence of a wide spectrum of subsistence strategies during prehistoric times. This work explores the variability of human paleodiets from different environmental and temporal contexts of the province. Bone and tooth samples of 30 individuals from five archaeological sites were analysed: Til 20 (late Formative), Til 1, Yacoraite (Regional Developments and Inca), Til 43 (Hispanic-Indigenous) in Quebrada de Humahuaca, and Doncellas (Regional Developments and Inca) in Puna. The results of carbon and nitrogen isotopic analyses reveal a strong relevance of C4 resources and a balance between meat and plant components of the diet for Quebrada de Humahuaca. Late Formative site Til 20 exhibits more enriched δ13C and δ15N values than Regional Developments and Inca sites, reflecting higher consumption of C4 resources and a greater relevance of the meat component in diet or, alternatively, crop manuring practices. Hispanic-Indigenous samples exhibited intermediate isotopic values, which indicate the consumption of C4 and C3 plant resources and enriched animal protein. In Puna, δ15N values show certain homogeneity around values that reflect a balance between meat and plant components in the diet. It is also observed in this region a great dispersion of the δ13C values for organic and mineral fractions, ranging from those reflecting high intake of C4 resources to those where C3 resources have greater relevance.

Preliminary molecular evidence of feasting in the Inca site of Fuerte Quemado-Intihuatana, Catamarca, Argentina

Feasting was an important aspect of the domination strategy designed by the Inca Empire in the provinces. Hospitality banquets were the setting for negotiations between Cuzco and the annexed populations. Consumption of food and drink played a fundamental role in these feasts. In this paper we present the first study of organic residues recovered from ceramic vessels from the archaeological site of Fuerte Quemado-Intihuatana (Catamarca, Argentina), an important settlement of the Collasuyu province. Earlier functional studies proposed that these vessels were used to store and serve food and drink in commensal contexts. Results from this preliminary molecular study support this hypothesis because all the containers yielded organic residues. Chemical and isotopic studies suggest that food and different kinds of beers were held in these containers during festive events.

Data Tables for Archaeoastronomy on Inca Sites in the Argentine Northwest

Data Tables for Archaeoastronomy on Inca Sites in the Argentine Northwest

Archaeoastronomy on Inca Sites in the Argentine Northwest

In this paper, we present results of astronomical and landscape analysis at four Inca sites located in the Nevados de Cachi area, North Calchaquí Valley, Salta Province, Argentina. Selection criteria took into consideration the existence of certain traits of paramount importance amongst Inca architecture, such as ushnu platforms, gnomons and a particularly interesting petroglyph located in a high-altitude sanctuary. Results show that the location and spatial layout of certain Inca settlements, as well as certain structures within, were designed and located based on astronomical observation patterns centred on solstices, equinoxes and lunar standstills.

LOS NEVADOS DE ACONQUIJA COMO SITIO DE FRONTERA Y ESPACIO DE OBSERVACIÓN LUNAR, TUCUMAN, NOROESTE DE ARGENTINA

We present social aspects related to the concepts of border, ushnu and lunar observation at the inca site of La Ciudacita, Tucuman province, northwestern Argentina. The analysis focused on the possibility of observing the lunistice or major lunar standstill, in relation to concepts of geographical latitude, architecture and horizon landmarks from the perspective of cultural astronomy. Our hypothesis is that the ushnu serves as a representation of the Moon at the zenith, south of the Tropic of Capricorn, highlighting its utility for following and predicting eclipses. Results show that the relationship between the ushnu and gnomon in observing the Moon’s phases was possibly linked to relations of power and the expansion of Tawantinsuyu, circa 1470 AD.

Analytical applications of fine-scale terrestrial lidar at the imperial Inca site of Caranqui, northern highland Ecuador

The relatively recent availability of terrestrial lidar for mapping archaeological subjects has allowed for great advances in representation and reconstruction but the analytic potential of this technology remains under-developed in archaeology. This paper provides an overview of the analytical directions we are taking with point cloud data generated through ground-based laser scanning at the imperial Inca site of Caranqui in northern Ecuador. Our approach to data analysis employs insights and ideas from the domains of GIScience, remote sensing, cartography, computer vision and hydrology. While creating a comprehensive visual record of the site was an important project goal, we also sought to develop improved methods of feature extraction and surface calibration to better understand water manipulation and flows at the site. Here we highlight some of the preliminary results of our analyses as well as the challenges and benefits of employing terrestrial lidar to investigate a mid-sized archaeological site.

Can the Inca site of Choqek'iraw be considered an agro-pastoral calendar?

Situated in the heart of the Vilcabamba cordillera in Peru, some 150 km northwest of Cuzco, the ancient Inca state capital, Choqek'iraw or Choquequirao (“the golden cradle” in Quechua), is one of the most beautiful achievements of Inca architecture, and one of the very few pre-Hispanic sites displaying large wall mosaics, the only one known from Inca times. This article will attempt to demonstrate that the figures represented on the walls convey cosmological significance and are laid out following textile principles. After describing the site and its geo-cultural setting, the mosaics' main characteristics will be examined in detail, in an attempt to grasp their meaning. Finally, the author suggests that some of the scenes depicted could have been inspired by pre-Columbian myths and could be linked to astronomical concepts.

Ushnus of the Inca provincial region: An analysis of two ceremonial platforms from Inca sites in Catamarca (Argentina)

The Inca polity deployed a variety of strategies in the establishment of imperial relations with the local communities of the southern provinces. These strategies included the translation of symbols materialized in architectural structures. In this sense, the ceremonial platforms denominated ushnus were spaces with particular significance and high hierarchy.In this paper, we analyze and compare two different platforms located in two sites from the Argentine Northwest, Province of Catamarca. The first archaeological site, El Shincal de Quimivil, has been considered an Inca provincial capital and the second, Hualfín Inca, an important administrative centre.The results show interesting differences between them, such as architectural forms and the archaeological record. These differences reflect not only the way in which the State operated in different territories and the nature of the relationship with local groups, but also the nuances of the historical process involving the Inca establishment in this region of the Argentinean Northwest.

Late Prehispanic Coquina Quarrying and Tomb Construction in Coastal Southern Peru

ABSTRACT We document the quarrying and source of coquina stone used in elite tomb construction at two late prehispanic sites in southern Peru. Excavations document tomb construction that includes coquina slabs for chamber walls, doorway lintel stones, and large slabs used to seal tomb openings. At the Inca site of Tacahuay Tambo, we uncovered two massive coquina slabs covering the opening of an extended familial tomb. Smaller coquina blocks were used to create the burial chamber. At the Late Horizon and earlier fishing village of Pueblo Picata we document a tomb chamber for a single elite individual constructed of large coquina slabs. A short distance from the village area at Pueblo Picata is a marine terrace outcrop with extensive evidence of prehispanic quarrying. Macroscopic petrographic comparisons of geological samples from the marine terrace and a sample of the archaeological tomb contexts indicate that coquina at both sites derive primarily from the Picata quarry while one tomb slab is from an unknown locale. The study indicates that a significant labor investment was needed for the quarrying and transport of coquina slabs. Furthermore, the use of coquina exclusively for elite tomb construction at these sites, and not for domestic or administrative architecture, suggests a strong symbolic association between coquina and mortuary practices. Coquina quarries and coquina use in tombs have not been reported previously for this or other regions of the Central Andean coast.

Lead in Ancient Peru: the Curamba Smelter and Lead Sling Bullets

Since the 16th century, the Inca site of Curamba, in southern Peru, has been interpreted as a metallurgical center for processing silver ore. Yet, aside from the many shallow pits, interpreted as hornos for smelting silver, there was no physical evidence for the use of huayras or tocochimbos, which were the structures traditionally used for precontact silver smelting in the ancient Andes. Geochemical analyses (inductively coupled plasma) of scoria excavated from the hornos at Curamba indicate low Ag (<0.3 ppm to 0.4 ppm), Au (<2 ppm), and Cu (18 ppm to 31 ppm) contents, whereas Pb (155 ppm to 234 ppm) and Zn (125 ppm to 259 ppm) contents were high. This suggests that nonargentiferous galena (PbS) was smelted to obtain lead. A lead-zinc signature is also indicated by the presence of As, Ba, Fe, Mn, and V, yet no ore minerals such as PbS or sphalerite [(Zn,Fe)S] have been found at the site. Several precontact lead artifacts from ancient Peru have been described as bars (lingotes) or weights (pesos). However, alternatively, these artifacts might be more accurately described as: (a) biconic to ovoid (30 mm to 60 mm, 30 g to 40 g) or (b) spherical (35 mm, 80 g to 160 g); therefore, in composition, dimensions, form, and weight, these ancient Peruvian lead artifacts from the north coast are strikingly similar to ancient Roman and Celtic lead sling ammunition from first-century BC battle sites, and are herein interpreted to have served a similar function in ancient Andean warfare.

International guidelines for antithrombotics in cancer patients.

e13062 Background: Venous thromboembolism (VTE), defined as deep-vein thrombosis (DVT) or pulmonary embolism (PE), including those related to indwelling central venous catheter (CVCT), is reported in 15 to 20% of patients with cancer. To date, VTE impact on oncology patients remains elusive and the increased incidence of cancers and of CVC for chemotherapy leads to an increased number of VTE. Methods: Heterogeneity in clinical practices worldwide, and lack of international recommendations led us to establish international guidelines for the management of VTE in cancer patients according to the GRADE methodology. These international guidelines were elaborated under the auspices of the International Society of Thrombosis and Haemostasis (ISTH) following an initiative from the “Groupe Francophone Thrombose et Cancer” (GFTC,www.thrombose-cancer.com) with the collaboration of the Academic Medical Centre (AMC), Amsterdam, The Netherlands, and the methodological support and quality control of the French national cancer institute (INCa). A literature review of the studies published on this topic between 1996 and 2011 was performed. A first version of the guidelines was established based on the corresponding levels of evidence derived from analysis of the selected studies. The recommendations were classified as Strong or Weak according to GRADE and Best Clinical Practices based on international expert’ agreement in the absence of literature data. In the absence of data we provided guidance based on experts opinion. The document was then peer-reviewed by a group of 200 international independent experts. Results: The main topics of the guidelines are the treatment and the prophylaxis of VTE with heparins and vitamin K antagonists in medical and surgical cancer patients, including CVC related thrombosis. Recommendations on the use of vena cava filters, thrombolysis and VTE treatment in patients with intracranial malignancies as well as for prophylaxis in the ambulatory setting are also proposed. Conclusions: These first international guidelines, the methodological steps, the data analysis and critical appraisal, the conclusions with their levels of evidence and the argued judgement of the experts will be available on the GTC, INCa and ISTH web sites

Some roads do lead to Incallajta: the Inca double road from Vacas

<p>Archaeologists, historians, and others have offered numerous interpretations of the monumental Inca site of Incallajta in Bolivia, including a <i>fortaleza, ciudadela,</i> political, administrative or ceremonial center, a replica of Cuzco or some combination of all of these. While numerous pre-modern roads have been located in this region, no such road has been associated with access or entrance to the site. This paper describes a double road that runs east from the provincial capital of Vacas to Incallajta's northern entrance. Various structures built across the road physically and symbolically restrict access to the site. I suggest that this road was an important ritual pathway to Incallajta.</p><p>Los arqueólogos, historiadores y otros investigadores han propuesto numerosas interpretaciones sobre el sitio Inca monumental de Incallajta en Bolivia, incluyendo su uso como fortaleza, ciudadela, centro político, administrativo o ceremonial, una réplica del Cuzco o una combinación de todas estas funciones. Si bien se han ubicado varios caminos antiguos en esta región, ninguno de estos caminos ha sido asociado con el acceso o la entrada al sitio. Este artículo describe un camino doble que va hacia el este desde la capital provincial de Vacas hacia la entrada norte de Incallajta. Diversas estructuras construidas a lo largo del camino restringen física y simbólicamente el acceso al sitio. Sugiero que esta vía fue un importante camino ritual hacia Incallajta.</p>