Inca Occupation Research Articles

RADIOCARBON VS. LUMINESCENCE DATING OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL CERAMICS IN THE SOUTHERN ANDES: A REVIEW OF PAIRED DATES, BAYESIAN MODELS, AND A PILOT STUDY

ABSTRACTArchaeologists have been using luminescence to date pottery in South America since the late 1970s, inspired by early success in northern Chile. However, luminescence dates have not been rigorously compared to independent dating methods, which this paper’s goal. First, we present a compilation of 94 paired14C and luminescence dates from the southern Andes, which reveals discrepancies across a range of contexts and ages. Second, we compare two Bayesian models of sets of14C and thermoluminescence (TL) dates from three ceramic styles in the Azapa Valley, Chile, and the Inca occupation of Mendoza, Argentina. We find that only the14C models produce results that agree with expectations based on independent data. Third, we present results from a pilot study in Mendoza that dated 6 sherds with 3 luminescence methods each and closely associated14C dates. The reasons for disagreement between methods remain unclear, but Andean sediments with low and unstable luminescence sensitivity seem to be an important factor. Even though some luminescence ages are accurate, the clear trend of inconsistent results leads us to recommend that archaeologists use14C rather than luminescence dates to build cultural chronologies.

Ocupación incaica en Cueva Inca Viejo y Abra de Minas, Puna de Salta, Argentina

We analyze mining and ritual activities during the Inca occupation of the Ratones basin, Puna de Salta, Northwest Argentina (NOA). From the archaeological evidence of the sites Cueva Inca Viejo and Abra de Minas, indicators about the link between these activities are presented. We also emphasize that Cueva Inca Viejo is the first documented source with evidence of turquoise exploitation in prehispanic contexts of NOA. The results obtained by SEM-EDX and XRD allowed the detection of this mineral in the rock walls of the cave and in stratigraphy. New EDX analyses of archaeological samples from Cueva Inca Viejo are presented in this paper. The existence of a turquoise mine explains the intense Inca occupation in this sector of the Puna. Likewise, the modification of previous occupations based on mining work and the construction of roads and architectural structures is noteworthy. In this regard, the presence of a ceremonial structure with staircase and platform at the entrance of Cueva Inca Viejo is highlighted. This evidence, among others, indicates the link between mining and ritual practices, and allows us to discuss the control of both activities by the Inca Empire.

Examining variation in skeletal tuberculosis in a late pre-contact population from the eastern mountains of Peru

Objective and materialsThis research evaluates the presence and chronology of tuberculosis (TB) in the northeastern highlands of Peru (CE 800–1535) through the analysis of osseous lesions from Pre-Contact Kuelap, Chachapoyas. MethodsWe examined macroscopic lesion morphology and distribution from the skeletal series (MNI = 207). ResultsWe determined that skeletal evidence was highly consistent with advanced multifocal and spinal tuberculosis in 13 individuals. Destructive lesions of the lower thoracic and/or lumbar vertebra bodies and sacroiliac joints are evident in most cases, but we also observed lesions within the manubriosternal, hip, and knee joints. Both adult males (n = 7) and females (n = 6) present skeletal lesions from young adult to older adults, but there is only one late adolescent. Only three individuals demonstrate similar lesion distributions. ConclusionsVariation in lesion distribution in this population-based study shows the importance of identifying extra-vertebral tuberculosis and suggests that the disease may have manifested differently than at other coastal sites. These cases confirm the presence of tuberculosis both before and after Inca occupation across this central Andean highlands region. SignificanceThis evidence for the likely endemic presence of TB in the New World prior to European Contact furthers our understanding of the distribution of this infectious disease across the region as well as elucidating lesion distribution. LimitationsThe diagnosis of tuberculosis is based on skeletal lesions and it should be confirmed by molecular analysis. Future ResearchAdditional examination of vertebral bodies (including juvenile remains) for evidence of earlier manifestations of infection.

Maquetas inkaicas en Chiu-Chiu:

Sculpted stone models or maquetas are a distinctive material expression of the inca occupation of the Atacama Desert. In this paper, we characterize a site with stone maquetas located along the Loa River above the town of Chiu-Chiu. Based on its formal attributes, the site can be dated to the Inca period. We consider the site’s internal spatial organization and relationship with the landscape to discuss how the maquetas acted as intermediaries between human and non-human beings in the region as part of agricultural rituality. Finally, we situate the agricultural rituality of the maquetas within the ritual and political dynamics established by the inca state in the Atacama.

Memoria en conflicto. Los incas en El Calvario de Fuerte Quemado de Yocavil, Noroeste Argentino

This work intends to study the Inca occupation in El Calvario de Fuerte Quemado, an importantlate village (XI-XV century AD) of the Yocavil valley, which, when confused with another nearbysite, had been relegated from regional investigations. On this occasion, based on the planialtimetricsurvey of the settlement, the different sectors with evidence of Inca occupation are analyzed andthe results of the excavations carried out in three circular stone structures, known as “torreones”,are presented. The destruction of a local tomb under a rocky ledge for the construction of one ofthe Inca towers and the redeposition of part of the burial content under its floor are stressed. Weconsider that these data will be relevant to discuss the different interpretations of the relationshipbetween the Inca state and the local populations. The destruction of a significant structure for localhistorical memory by representatives of the Inca state, an event that has been hardly documented inarchaeology, reveals –beyond the negotiation strategies with local elites– the violent character of theimperial conquest.

ANIMALES E INCAS EN EL OESTE TINOGASTEÑO (CATAMARCA, ARGENTINA)

This paper explores the diverse human practices related to the use of animals during the Inca occupation of west Tinogasta (Catamarca, Argentina). We argue that the Inca state sponsored festivities in the San Francisco site (transitional puna of Chaschuil), where wild animal meat, mainly meat and bone marrow of adult vicuñas, was shared and consumed. These wild camelids were captured during the chaku, a collective hunting regulated by social and cultural mechanisms. Llamas were used as beasts of burden in caravans transporting ceramic vessels (aríbalosandaribaloides) from the pottery production center of Batungasta to San Francisco. We postulate that thearíbalosandaribaloides, which were designed for alcoholic beverages, were lined with camelid bone marrow to make their inner walls impermeable. Lastly, we argue that bones of birds and rodents were used to and the skin of a puma (important symbolic animal for the Incas) was processed in the San Francisco site.

Dating the Expansion of the Inca Empire: Bayesian Models from Ecuador and Argentina

AbstractThe chronology of the Inca Empire has traditionally relied on ethnohistoric dates, which suggest that a northern expansion into modern Ecuador began in AD 1463 and a southern expansion into modern Argentina began in AD 1471. We test the validity of these dates with two Bayesian models, which show that the ethnohistoric dates are incorrect and that the southern expansion began before the northern one. The first model of seven dates shows that the site of Chamical, Ecuador, was first occupiedcal AD 1410–1480 (95% probability)and has a high probability of being built prior to the ethnohistoric date. The second is an outlier model of 2614C dates and 19 thermoluminescence (TL) dates from 10 sites along the empire’s southeastern limit in northwestern Mendoza, Argentina. Here, the Inca occupation begancal AD 1350–1440 (95% probability), also earlier than the ethnohistoric date. The model also suggests that the Inca occupation of Mendoza lasted70–230 yr (95% probability), longer than previously thought, which calls for new perspectives on the timing and nature of Inca conquests and relationships with local groups. Based on these results, we argue it is time to abandon the traditional chronology in favor of Inca chronologies based on Bayesian models.

Representaciones Rupestres del Sitio Villavil 2 (Valle de Hualfín, Catamarca, Argentina)

In this paper we present and interpret a group of rock art motifs found in the north of the Hualfin valley, Catamarca, Argentina. First of all the rock engravings are placed in the landscape, and is mentioned the major archaeological sites in the valley, being Hualfín Inka the most important archaeological site for Inca times. We present a preliminary analysis of the rock art along with the study of its functionality and its integration into the regional dynamic. Using the ancient rock art motifs found in Northwest Argentina and northern Chile and their associated interpretations, the engravings are located chronologically during the Regional Development period and probably during Inca occupation.

Local ceramic technology of the Pucara of Tilcara during the inka period (Quebrada of Humahuaca, Argentina)

The Pucara of Tilcara is one of the most notable archeological settlements in the Quebrada of Humahuaca in northwestern Argentina. In this paper, we engage in technological and contextual analyses of ceramics excavated from Residential Unit 1 and of collections of ceramics from the site to identify the consumption and use of ceramics that were eminently local in their production. Evidence indicates that Residential Unit 1 functioned as a house-workshop where domestic and craft activities, including pottery and metallurgy, were combined with ritual activities (evidenced by burials under the floor and in the ossuary). The collections of ceramics from Residential Unit 1 reveal a high degree of variation in both the forms and the surface treatments, while the petrographic characteristics of the ceramic pastes analyzed indicate the continuity of local regional manufacturing traditions and little State interference during the Inca occupation of the Quebrada.

Complejo Arquitectónico Cerro Mercachas: arquitectura y ritualidad incaica en Chile central

In this paper we discuss Inca occupation in the central zone of Chile, through the study of the biggest imperial site so far known in the area: the architectonical complex of Cerro Mercachas. An intra-site analysis was able to identify a linear and tripartite spatial organization of the site. Together with the scarce material culture identified, we suggest a ritual function for this site, related to festivities surrounding Inca metropolitan calendar or, at least, the observation of the December solstice and the Cerro Aconcagua cult. The overall archaeological context suggests a sporadic use of the site and by a limited number of individuals. This implies an exclusive ritualism for a selected few. Seen at a regional level, the high visibility of the site integrates this exclusive ritualism into the daily landscape of local populations, thereby reproducing the strategies of social construction of space that Tawantinsuyu executes in other areas. This new spatial order creates difference and hierarchy with local ritual spaces, thereby materializing a strategy of integration and exclusion between Tawantinsuyu and local populations. With these results we discuss the administration model traditionally used to understand Inca occupation in Central Chile.

Interpretations of Pre-Hispanic Ritual Violence at Tucume, Peru, from Cut Mark Analysis

AbstractArchaeological residues of ritual are often ephemeral, and reconstructing the dynamics of performed actions that create deposits can be difficult. Rituals associated with the dead are common across many cultures since all human groups have specific means of disposing of corpses. Evidence of peri- and postmortem manipulation of human remains, such as cutting, dismemberment, or disarticulation can provide details of the sequence of actions performed related to the circumstances surrounding death and the possible social meaning of those behaviors. Cut marks observed on the upper chest and throat of 93 percent of 117 children and men found interred at the Temple of the Sacred Stone at Túcume, Peru are consistent with three symbolic behaviors: cutting the throat, opening the chest cavity, and decapitation. This patterning of skeletal trauma demonstrates that a highly elaborate series of violent ritual behaviors was carried out on a regular basis at this location, beginning in the Late Intermediate Period (∼A.D. 1100) through to the end of the Late Horizon Inca occupation of the site around A.D. 1532. The recent finds of bioarchaeological evidence of ritual violence across the Andes suggests that, although rare, these mortuary remains provide important clues to the elaborate nature of ritual behaviors at different sites.

Inca strategies of control: a comparison of the Inca occupations of Soras and Andamarca Lucanas

<p>The Late Horizon Inca occupations of two neighboring valleys in the south-central highlands of Peru are compared. The Chicha Valley, occupied by the Soras ethnic group, shows evidence of a marked Inca presence at all domestic sites, in aspects of architecture and cultural material. In contrast, the Inca occupation of the Sondondo Valley, occupied by the Andamarca Lucanas ethnic group, is readily apparent, but appears far less intrusive in domestic contexts. We suggest that the Inca presence was more pervasive in the Chicha Valley due to the greater resistance to Inca conquest on the part of the Soras, the consolidation of Inca authority over the Soras very early in the expansion of the empire, and the physical presence of Pachacuti in the Soras region.</p><p>Se comparan la ocupaciones incaicas durante el Horizonte Tardío de dos valles vecinos en la sierra sur-central del Perú. A pesar de su cercanía geográfica, y de la semejanza de sus entornos culturales y ambientales previos a la conquista Inca, los Incas aparentemente utilizaron diferentes estrategias en cada valle. El valle de Chicha, ocupado por el grupo étnico de los Soras, muestra evidencias de una marcada presencia Inca en todos los sitios domésticos, en aspectos de la arquitectura y la cultura material. En contraste, la ocupación Inca del valle de Sondondo, habitado por el grupo étnico de los Andamarca Lucanas, es bastante aparente, pero se observa de una manera mucho menos intrusa en los contextos domésticos. Sugerimos que la presencia Inca fue más dominante en el valle de Chicha debido a la mayor resistencia a la conquista Inca por parte de los Soras, la consolidación de la autoridad Inca sobre los Soras durante una fase muy temprana de la expansión del imperio y por la presencia personal en Soras de Pachacuti.</p>

THE INCA CONQUEST AND CONSOLIDATION OF THE COTAHUASI VALLEY OF SOUTHERN PERU

This article combines historical records and data from archaeological survey and excavations to describe the Inca occupation of the Cotahuasi Valley of southern Peru. The empire constructed an administrative center, established private estates dedicated to the sun and the Inca, built an Inca road through the valley, and created a ceremonial center from a local ritual site. The high Inca investment in Cotahuasi was likely due to the valley’s natural resources, its position as a transportation corridor, and its low level of political complexity preceding the conquest. Cotahuasi provides a good case study of how imperial power was mediated through local elites.

Radiocarbon dating of the Peruvian Chachapoya/Inca site at the Laguna de los Condores

In 1997 a new archaeological site was discovered in the Peruvian tropical rain forest. The site is located in an area which has been occupied by the Chachapoya, a pre-Incan people, from about 800AD on. The site comprises a large funerary place with several mausoleums built in the cliffs next to the Laguna de los Condores. More than 200 human mummies and funerary bone-bundles together with numerous grave artefacts have been found there. Although the site has been ascribed to the Chachapoya, the mummification method used is very similar to the one applied by the Inca. As part of an ongoing multidisciplinary project to explore the history of this site and of the Chachapoya people, twenty-seven (27) 14C-AMS age determinations were performed. Samples, bones and textile wrappings as well as samples from a funerary bone bundle plus associated grave artefacts were dated. The 14C data show that the site originates from the Chachapoya pre-Inca period and that in addition, it was used as a funerary place during the subsequent Inca occupation era. The radiocarbon results indicate that the Chachapoya may have changed their burial tradition due to the colonization by the Inca.

Apuntes sobre el Período Intermedio Tardío y la presencia inca en la cuenca alta del río Ricrán, sierra central del Perú

Archaeological data obtained from Inca sites located in the upper Ricran valley (central sierra of Peru) is considered against other evidence from the Late Intermediate Period. This leads us to evaluate and characterize regional inca occupation through an analysis of the changes in settlement patterns, of the buildings of probable inca inspiration, and of State pottery in local villages. Agricultural terraces, remains of roads and what possibly constitutes a ceremonial site linked to the sacred mountain of Apohuayhuay nearby, suggests this area was integrated to the provincial centers of Hatun Xauxa and Tarmatambo, a production center of different goods for the Empire and as residence of a regional deity or huaca.

Inca Imperialism, Ritual Change, and Cosmological Continuity in the Cotahuasi Valley of Peru

As in other ancient states, Inca religious reform was largely successful because it drew upon preexisting cosmological principles of the south-central Andes. In this case study involving the Cotahuasi Valley of southern Peru, I argue that during the Inca occupation of the valley, an offering tradition ended, an important ritual center was abandoned, and another ritual center was completely remodeled. At the same time, other local ritual practices continued largely unmolested. I suggest that the Inca chose to encourage these changes in Cotahuasi because the ritual landscape that the Inca encountered in the valley caused political and ideological problems that could not be overcome without changing some aspects of the valley's religion. These reforms were successful because they fit within a concept of circulating life forces that was shared by both conquerors and conquered. I suggest that this belief was a resilient long-term structure of meaning that was, and remains, part of the region's practical consciousness.

Lesión litica craniana por Leishmaniasis en Makat-tampu durante el império inca: siglos XV-XVI, valle dei Bajo Rímac, Peru.

Paleopathological evidence of mucosal alteration deforming human population of ancient Peru suggests the presence of mucosal leishmaniasis (LM) in the agricultural population living near the endemic area between XV-XVI centuries. The pathological anatomy studies was divided in two phases: 1) pattern of mucosal form in human crania was defined among selected patients, from the Research Center Hospital Evandro Chagas (Fiocruz), with clinical history and destruction of the facial bones, principally oro-nasal cavity. Seven cases were selected. All caused by Leishmania (V.) braziliensis: 6 men and 1 woman with age up to 35 years old. X-ray pictures and axial tomography of the cranium were performed in order to define the pathologic pattern in the bones; 2) archaeological material was analyzed and compared in 241 skulls from the Department of Physical Anthropology of the National Museum of Anthropology, Archaeology and History, Lima, Peru. Material was well preserved and we identified five cases (4 men and 1 woman) with age up to 35 years old presenting naso-palatine destruction, compatible with mucosal form defined by clinical casuistic. It proceeded from the Inca cemetery of Makat-Tampu, Rimac Valley. The rate of mucosal lesions (2.07%) compatible with ML may suggest that there was a high prevalence of L. braziliensis complex infection in the pre-hispanic times and confirm our hypothesis. This study was based on biocultural focus, aiming to reconstruct the quotidian life of the agricultural population of the Rimac valley during the Inca occupation.

Nuevas evidencias incas entre Collahuasi y Río Frío (I y II Regiones del norte de Chile)

El llamado “gran despoblado”, se sitúa en un inmenso desierto de altura, con escasa agua y casi totalmente desocupado, pero rico en vestigios bien conservados tanto de los períodos prehistóricos tempranos como tardíos. Desafortunadamente, la explotación de sus recursos en la actualidad, especialmente la exploración y desarrollo de su riqueza minera, amenaza sus delicados caracteres superficiales y por lo tanto requiere de un rápido registro. Por eso, hemos trabajado en torno a la ocupación inca, en proyectos originalmente vinculados con el uso arcaico de las cuencas de Atacama y Punta Negra. La presencia inca hacia el sur, especialmente en el Norte Chico, es conocida por los estudios pioneros de Iribarren y Bergholz (1971), Niemeyer y Silva (1977), Rivera e Hyslop (1984) y, más recientemente, a través del trabajo de Stehberg y Carvajal (1988). En esta oportunidad se presentan nuevas evidencias correspondientes al sector Collahuasi-Río Negro, en las tierras altas de la I y II regiones de Chile, como un avance preliminar del Proyecto Inca patrocinado por The National Geographic Society.ABSTRACTThe northern part of Chile, called “gran despoblado”, is located in a immense and high desert with scarse water and totally unpopulated, but it has wellkept remains belonging both early and late prehistoric periods. Unfortunately, the present working and development of its mineral wealth threaten its fine superficial features and it has to be recorded as soon as possible. For that reason we have worked around the inca occupation, we have worked in projects originally related to the arcaic use of the Atacama and Punta Negra basins. The inca presence towards the south lands, specially in the Norte Chico, is known through the pioneer investigation carried out by Iribarren and Bergholz (1971), Niemeyer and Silva (1977), Rivera and Hyslop (1984) and recently through the study made by Stehberg and Carvajal (1988). In this opportunity new evidences belonging to the Collahuasi area-Río Negro, in the highlands of the first and second regions are shown, and also the preliminary advance of the Inca Project by The National Geographic Society. This essay constitutes a synthesis of the preliminary results of an investigation of the Inca Road, its exact route, structures, and purpose, as supported by The National Geographic Society (4654-91, Mapping inca installations in the Atacama: Relations with local peoples). Attention has focussed on Catarpe Tambo, which appears to have been an administrative center for the road complex between at least 22° and 25° S Lat. Large parts of the system between Turi and Chiu Chiu in the north, and Río Frío in the south, were located and recorded by the authors, specially from 1991 through 1993. Abandoned after the Inca Period, Catarpe evidences storage, metallurgy, protective fortifications, ritual, concentration of precious goods, and even administrative functions (quipu) that are often absent at the smaller tambos. Much of the road system was rerouted during the Spanish Period, so that it could be traversed by groups with horses and mules, leaving other, subsequently unused parts of the original Inca Road inperfect condition. Untrodden portions of the original roadway often feature distinctive intact hitos, curbing stones, stairs, and associated artifacts such as pottery and sandals.

The Inca Occupation of the South Coast of Peru

like the others, however; it forks into several nearly parallel ravines of which the largest are Huayuri, Rio Grande-Palpa, Ingenio (called Collao in ancient times), Nasca proper (the ancient Caxamarca), Taruga, and Poroma. Due to peculiarities of the local topography, the irrigated areas in Ica and the ravines of Nasca are located inland, at the foot of the mountains, rather than at the mouths of the rivers as is more usual in Peruvian coastal valleys. No sharp natural or cultural boundary separates the valley of Chincha from the valleys of Cafiete (ancient Huarco and Runahuana), Asia, and Mala, the next valleys going up the coast to the northwest. At the other end of the area we are considering, however, there is a sharp break; beyond Yauca the Andean foothills reach out to the sea, natural conditions are quite different, and there are important differences in the archaeological picture as well. The historical sources which mention the south coast are not particularly helpful, except in so far as they provide us with a few dates. To begin with, no chronicler gives an explicit account of the political organization of the south coast at the time it came into contact with the Incas. It can, perhaps, be inferred from Cabello Balboa's statements about common policy toward the Inca invaders that there was some sort of political connection between the valleys of Mala, Cafiete, and Chincha, but the connection need have been no more than a temporary military alliance. Cabello makes no mention at all of Pisco. The valleys of Ica, Nasca, and 125