Inadequate View Research Articles

Socratic Persuasion in the Crito

Socrates does not use the Laws' Speech in the Crito principally to persuade Crito to accept his coming execution. It is used instead to persuade Crito to examine and work on his inadequate view of justice. Crito's view of justice fails to coordinate one's duties to friends and those to the law. The Laws' Speech accomplishes this persuasive goal by accompanying Crito’s earlier speech. Both start from the same view of justice, one that Crito accepts, but reach opposing conclusions. Crito cannot judge between the two appealing speeches. His understanding of justice is too confused for him to decide well how to help Socrates. His need to explain what happened the morning he visited Socrates will prompt him and others to examine this indeterminate view of justice. Socrates foregoes direct refutation because Crito will not abide that usual way of interrogation. Engaging in short question-and-answer conversation is not the only way to bring a person to aporia and the intention to examine oneself. Socrates does not here undermine his assertions in the Apology about his ignorance, lack of interest in teaching, constant philosophizing, and his belief that what he does is question, examine, and test those he talks to.

Response to Taylor: The Full Picture of the Sexualisation of Children Debate

IN HER REVIEW AND REFRAMING of ‘the Australian public media debate over the sexualisation of children in the media’, Affrica Taylor claims that ‘loss of innocence is the fundamental concern’, and portrays the debate as simply a ‘moral panic’ characteristic of the history of introductions of new media to children (2010, p. 48, p. 52, p. 49). While Taylor is correct to identify and critique concerns about ‘loss of innocence’ as part of the public media debate, the debate can only be reduced to such concerns by misrepresenting or leaving aside logically independent sources of concern. Hence, Taylor provides an inadequate view of the debate to early childhood professionals who are aware of and concerned about the sexualisation of children but not necessarily familiar with the full depth of discussion on the topic. I introduce the public policy debate over the sexualisation of children, which is based on both research evidence and expert opinion from those working in the areas of children's health and welfare. This debate exists both beyond and entwined with the media debate. Attention to the policy-relevant literature reveals that Taylor's reframing significantly distorts the full range of issues raised by the corporate-led sexualisation of children along three major axes. First, while post-structuralist attention to micropolitics is important, it does not render appropriate attention to macropolitics redundant. Second, stereotypical, rather than age-inappropriate, sexuality is the primary focus in the debate over the sexualisation of children. Third, child health, wellbeing and safety are the driving concerns for professionals and policy-makers.

Comparison of tracheal intubation with the Airway Scope and Macintosh laryngoscope in the lateral position

Comparison of tracheal intubation with the Airway Scope and Macintosh laryngoscope in the lateral position

Superior glottic views with the GlideScope® and Airtraq® laryngoscopes compared with an anterior commissure laryngoscope

To the Editor, In the unanticipated difficult airway, an anesthesiologist or otolaryngologist may perform direct laryngoscopy with a rigid anterior commissure laryngoscope. There have been case reports of using the anterior commissure laryngoscope for laryngoscopic rescue in difficult airways. We describe a case in which the view we obtained using two different video laryngoscopes was improved over that seen by an experienced otolaryngologist using an anterior commissure laryngoscope and over that seen by an anesthesiologist using a direct laryngoscope. This observation provides anecdotal support for the role of video laryngoscopy as an early rescue device when direct laryngoscopy affords an inadequate laryngeal view. This report is presented with the written consent of the patient. A 41-yr-old man presented with a recurrence of a squamous cell carcinoma of the tongue. On this occasion, we planned a diagnostic panendoscopy tracheostomy, bilateral neck dissection, composite mandibular resection, and reconstruction. Twelve months earlier, the patient had undergone a panendoscopy, bilateral neck dissection, mandibulotomy, partial glossectomy, and a free forearm flap to the floor of the mouth. Seven months later, a recurrence prompted cisplatin chemotherapy and irradiation with 70 Gy delivered in 35 fractions over seven weeks. The anesthesia chart from the first operation revealed no problems with bag-mask ventilation; direct laryngoscopy offered a Cormack-Lehane (C/L) grade 1 laryngeal view. The patient’s airway assessment prior to the second operation revealed an obvious flap reconstruction of the right tongue, modified Mallampati 2 view, mouth opening greater than three finger breadths, and normal neck flexion with slightly restricted extension. He had full dentition and a prominent overbite but could just approximate his maxillary and mandibular incisors. His anterior neck was swollen and firm to the touch. His body mass index was 21 kg m, and he denied any gastro-esophageal reflux. We felt that direct laryngoscopy would be difficult, but not bag-mask ventilation. Anesthesia was induced with midazolam 2 mg, remifentanil 40 lg, propofol 150 mg, and succinylcholine 100 mg iv. Following induction of anesthesia bag-mask, ventilation was easily achieved. The staff otolaryngologist inserted the anterior commissure laryngoscope as part of the panendoscopy. Since this was achieved with some difficulty, the surgeon introduced an Eschmann Tracheal Tube Introducer (Smiths Medical International Ltd, Hythe, Kent, UK) into the patient’s trachea over which an 8-mm (internal diameter) endotracheal tube was advanced. The best laryngeal view obtained with the anterior commissure laryngoscope, by using external laryngeal pressure and considerable force, was a C/L 2-B. Once a tracheostomy had been performed, three different laryngoscopes were compared by one of the authors (S.K.). Direct laryngoscopy using a Macintosh #3 provided a C/L 3 view. The Airtraq Optical Laryngoscope (Prodol Meditec, Viscaya, Spain) and the GlideScope Cobalt Advanced Video Laryngoscope (AVL) (Verathon Medical, Bothell, WA, USA), both indirect laryngoscopes, provided better views compared with the previous two laryngoscopes. No Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s12630-010-9413-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Tracheal intubation with the AirwayScope™ videolaryngoscope using straight vs curved reinforced tubes

To the Editor, The AirwayScope (AWS-S100; IMI Co., LTD., Koshigaya Saitama, Japan) is proposed as an alternative to the classical Macintosh laryngoscope for tracheal intubation in patients with cervical spine instability and/or neck stiffness, because it offers a better laryngeal view with less cervical spine movement. Its introducer, the INTLOCK, gives the straight reinforced tube a downward orientation, whereas the curved tube points upwards. Therefore, intubation difficulties may be more frequent with the straight tube because of more likely impingement with the arytenoids (Fig. 1). We compared straight and curved reinforced endotracheal tubes in terms of intubation success rate, delay of intubation, incidence of impingement with the arytenoids, and postoperative sore throat and hoarseness. After obtaining approval from the Research Ethics Committee of Wakayama Medical University and written informed patient consent, 55 patients (45–84 yr) American Society of Anesthesiologists’ physical status I–III undergoing lumbar spine surgery had their tracheal intubation performed with an AWS using a tube size 7.5 for females (F) and 8.0 for males (M). Patients were assigned to the curved group (curved reinforced tube; Covidien, Mansfield, MA, USA), n = 25, M/F = 14/11, or to the straight group (straight reinforced tube; Fuji Systems Co., Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan), n = 30, M/F = 14/16. If intubation did not succeed at the first attempt, another insertion was allowed by adjusting the AWS direction upward. Twenty-four hours after surgery, severity of sore throat and hoarseness were graded. Sample size calculation was performed using the time from laryngeal view to intubation as the primary end point. Twenty-five patients were needed for an 89% power to detect changes of 4.8 sec at a significance level of 0.05; standard deviation (SD) = 5.2. Statistical analysis was performed using the Mann–Whitney U test or the v test. Patients in both groups had similar characteristics, including sex ratio, age, body mass index, Mallampati score, and duration of anesthesia. The intubation success rate was greater in the curved group than in the straight group (100% vs 83.3%, respectively; P 0.05). When failure of tracheal intubation occurred in the straight group, it was due to the arytenoid cartilages interfering with the tube advancement and not due to an inadequate view of the larynx. The time from laryngeal view to intubation lasted longer in the straight group than in the curved group (11.1 ± 5.2 sec vs 6.3 ± 4.7 sec, respectively; mean ± SD; P 0.05), whereas the time until the glottic view did not differ between groups (10.2 ± 7.0 sec vs 9.8 ± 5.9 sec, respectively). These results suggest that intubation delay in the straight group was not due to the inadequate laryngeal view. The number of insertion attempts was greater in the straight group than in the curved group (2.4 ± 1.4 attempts vs 1.2 ± 0.5 attempts, respectively; P 0.05), reflecting the need for more upward adjustments of the introducer tip T. Minonishi, MD H. Kinoshita, MD, PhD (&) K. Tange, MD Y. Hatano, MD, PhD Wakayama Medical University, Wakayama, Japan e-mail: hkinoshi@nike.eonet.ne.jp; hkinoshi@wakayama-med.ac.jp

Kuhn's Evolutionary Epistemology and Its Being Undermined by Inadequate Biological Concepts

Kuhn made two attempts at providing an evolutionary analogy for scientific change. The first attempt, in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, is very brief and unstructured; in this article I discuss some of its weaknesses. Alexander Bird takes this attempt more seriously and provides a criticism based on oversimplified evolutionary assumptions. These assumptions prove to be inadequate for the second, more articulate, evolutionary analogy suggested by Kuhn in “The Road since Structure.” I argue, however, that this second Kuhnian attempt is undermined by his inadequate view of biological progress and by his misunderstanding of the concept of ecological niche.

Consentimento livre e esclarecido: ainda uma ferramenta útil na ética em pesquisa

This article dicusses informed consent (IC): its evolution, its main challenges, and its theoretical assumptions. This process involves the interrelation of IC with the history and evolution of research ethics, and with some abuses committed in biomedical research. The article also presents the objections to IC, especially those related to its implementation in developing countries. It also approaches the epistemological problems and those related to the capacity of acting, given the background conditions in which IC is obtained. Furthermore, the article exposes the traditional justification of IC as conveyed by the Belmont Report, as well as a frequent simplification of this justification that focuses only on the deliberative aspect of IC, in which the emphasis on the autonomy or deliberation supposes an inadequate view of research subjects.

Informed consent: still a useful tool in research ethics

This article dicusses informed consent (IC): its evolution, its main challenges, and its theoretical assumptions. This process involves the interrelation of IC with the history and evolution of research ethics, and with some abuses committed in biomedical research. The article also presents the objections to IC, especially those related to its implementation in developing countries. It also approaches the epistemological problems and those related to the capacity of acting, given the background conditions in which IC is obtained. Furthermore, the article exposes the traditional justification of IC as conveyed by the Belmont Report, as well as a frequent simplification of this justification that focuses only on the deliberative aspect of IC, in which the emphasis on the autonomy or deliberation supposes an inadequate view of research subjects.

‘Developing’ the Self in the Knowledge Economy

The term ‘knowledge economy’, like the term ‘globalisation’, has become a catchword in political and educational debate over the last decade or so, especially in debates upon educational policy where the role of education in preparing young people to take their part in the Knowledge Economy is often seen as paramount over other traditional schooling activities. It is said in such debates that the production of knowledge, information and skills, will become more valuable than traditional primary and secondary production. A lot is said about the knowledge required in the Knowledge Economy, and about how institutions, businesses, activities and human beings are to be ordered or structured in accordance with views of knowledge and new Management theories. But little is said of the young people expected to take their part in the knowledge economy. Do they have a choice? Is lying on a surfboard excluded from their life options? How will they be developed, trained or educated to take their part? Will they be committed to developing their selves in accordance with the model of the IT Knowledge Entrepreneur (hereinafter TIKE) presented as a model for education by policy makers in the Knowledge Economy? This article will argue against this latter notion of the development of the self, arguing that because knowledge is prioritised over ethics, there is both an inadequate notion of the self and the educational development of the self and, because of its implicit view only of ethics, an inadequate ethical and moral view of education [246 words].

Showing Enantiomorphous Crystals of Tartaric Acid

Most of the articles and textbooks that show drawings of enantiomorphous crystals use an inadequate view to appreciate the fact that they are non-superimposable mirror images of one another. If a graphical presentation of crystal chirality is not evident, the main attribute of crystal enantiomorphism can not be recognized by students. The classic case of tartaric acid crystals is discussed and the use of an alternative graphical representation and a paper model is proposed to facilitate the conceptualization of this subject.

De gustibus est disputandum: Frank H. Knight's reply to George Stigler and Gary Becker's ‘De gustibus non est disputandum’ with an introductory essay

De gustibus est disputandum: Frank H. Knight's reply to George Stigler and Gary Becker's ‘De gustibus non est disputandum’ with an introductory essay

Reconciliation through Church Union in post-Apartheid South Africa: The Uniting Presbyterian Church in Southern Africa

This paper will argue that the union which brought the Uniting Presbyterian Church in Southern Africa into being was based on an inadequate view of reconciliation in a Christian context. While lip service may have been paid to the authentic concept, flawed views have led to many misunderstandings concerning the mission and vision of the new church, and despite attempts at reformation and renewal, reconciliation as justice restored still evades the ethos of the young denomination.

Beyond National Defense

In War and Self-Defense I attempt to generate a dilemma for the just war theory by arguing that the right of national defense cannot be reduced to personal rights of self-defense, nor can it be explained through an analogy with them. Jeff McMahan, David Mapel, and Fernando Tesón doubt this conclusion. In response I argue, first, that their objections are not as opposed to my basic project as they may at first appear. This is because they are premised on a conception of national defense that differs substantially from mainstream just war theory and international law. Second, I argue that McMahan's and Mapel's defense of the reductive argument is unconvincing because (among other things) it is premised on an inadequate view of the norm of proportionality. On the other hand Tesón's defense of the analogical view, based on a conception of the moral value of the just institutions of a legitimate state, cannot account for certain basic features of the international legal and moral order. These include the presumption that even unjust states can possess the right of self-defense against aggression and that it is impermissible for one just state to conquer and rule another just state. Finally I argue that the attempt to bolster the right of national defense through the concept of punishment is inappropriate because it ignores the crucial requirement for proper moral authority in the agent of punishment.

A Minimal Expression of Non–reductionism in the Epistemology of Testimony

What is required in order for a hearer to acquire knowledge from either the spoken or written word of a speaker? Otherwise put, what are the requisite conditions for testimonial knowledge? This question is at the center of the epistemology of testimony, and it is nearly received wisdom in the current philosophical literature that there is only one tenable option for answering it; namely, a non-reductionist view of testimonial knowledge.' Non-reductionists maintain that testimony is just as basic a source of knowledge as sense perception, memory, inductive inference, and the like and, moreover, that hearers can acquire knowledge from the reports of speakers, albeit defeasibly, merely on the basis of a speaker's testimony.2 For instance, Robert Audi claims that ...gaining testimonially grounded knowledge normally requires only having no reason for doubt about the credibility of the attester.3 In a similar spirit, Tyler Burge maintains that [a] person is entitled to accept as true something that is presented as true and that is intelligible to him, unless there are stronger reasons not to do so.4 The thought underlying non-reductionism, therefore, is that acquiring testimonial knowledge is an extremely simple epistemic process that functions well between speakers and hearers unless it is interrupted by the presence of a defeater. In this paper, however, I shall argue that non-reductionism, as it stands, is a wholly inadequate view of testimonial knowledge. Specifically, I shall argue that, in addition to the absence of defeaters, there are at least three further conditions that need to be added to this view to render it plausible. Thus, I intend to show that acquiring knowledge from the word of others is a process that is far more complicated and easily interrupted than proponents of non-reductionism maintain.

A user-oriented view of ''learning environment''

Within the rapid development that e-learning has taken in the last years, we still recognise a tendency of restricting the discussion to technical issues. This also influences the way in which e-learning environments are looked upon. What is expected from the users (teachers as well as students) is mostly technical competence in handling them. Our experience in several virtual seminars in the context of the project "Virtueller Campus Sprache – Wissen –Information", however, shows that this is an inadequate view for an successful exploitation of the potential of computer supported collaborative learning. In our paper, we want to discuss a broader concept of "learning environments" including especially social structure and working phases and therefore presupposing communicative competence of their users. From this concept, we derive the essential elements of a learning environment in our wide sense of the term and we discuss requirements for the technical infrastructure supporting this kind of e-learning.

Religieuze kennistheorie en hersenactiviteit Een reactie op Marcel Sarot

In a recent article, Marcel Sarot has enquired into the relevance of the ‘God-spot’ (e.g. five spots in the brain that are being activated when people have an experience of the divine) for the rationality of belief in God. In our article, we argue, first, that the objections Sarot presents against an argument aiming to show that the existence of the God-spot is in some sense evidence for the reliability of religious experience, are not convincing. We argue, second, that Sarot’s claim that the existence of the God-spot poses a problem for Reformed Epistemology is ill-motivated since it rests on an inadequate view of Reformed Epistemology.

Carving Out Space: Civil Society and the Women's Movement in South Korea

Is civil society gendered? What can the Korean women's movement tell us about the very notion and working of civil society and the 1990s history of democratization in South Korea? Students of democratization have overlooked these questions in their study of civil society as a vehicle of democratization and counterweight to the repressive state or the totalizing market (Silliman and Noble 1998; White 1996; Koo 1993; Cohen and Arato 1992; Gold 1990; Keane 1988). Recent criticisms of the celebration of civil society as the third path to societal democratization point out that such analyses tend to lapse into abstract discussions of relations between the state and civil society, devoid of a specific historical or social context (Fine 1997; Tempest 1997; Blaney and Pasha 1993). This absence of context can also lead to an inadequate view of civil society as a uniform and homogeneous space without social inequalities or divisions.

On the Cross of Mere Utility: Utilitarianism, Sacrifices, and the Value of Persons

Utilitarianism seems to require us to sacrifice a person if doing so will produce a net increase in the amount of utility. This feature of utilitarianism is extremely unattractive. The puzzle is how to reject this requirement without rejecting the plausible claim that we are often wise to trade lesser amounts of utility for greater amounts. I argue that such a position is not as paradoxical as it may appear, so long as we understand the relationship between the value of utility and the value of persons in a certain way. I argue that the traditional utilitarian position assumes an inadequate view of this relationship. I suggest a more plausible view of this relationship, one which implies that we may not sacrifice a person merely in order to produce a net gain in utility, where that utility does not result from the saving of any other persons' lives.

Intonation in Theory and Practice, Revisited

Intonation as currently presented in North American textbooks bears a strong resemblance to textbook treatments from 30–50 years ago despite tremendous advances in both theoretical and applied research on intonational description and the role of intonation in communication. This article reviews current intonational research that is relevant to teaching and presents implications for pedagogy. It then argues that there are two primary reasons for a lack of innovation in intonation teaching materials. First, current materials are based on an inadequate view of the functions of intonation, especially in their overemphasis on its role in signaling grammatical relations and in their emphasis on its role in conveying speakers' attitudes and emotions. Second, materials lack a communicative purpose, focusing instead on uncontextualized, sentence-level practice of intonational forms. Four principles for intonation teaching materials—namely, (a) that intonation must be taught in context, (b) that intonational meanings must be generalizable, (c) that the teaching of intonation must always be subordinate to larger communicative purposes, and (d) that intonation should be taught with realistic language—are discussed and contrasted with current practice.

Visual outcome and progression of retinopathy after cataract surgery in diabetic patients.

Diabetes mellitus is a major cause of visual impairment in developed countries through retinopathy and is frequently complicated by cataract formation. The present study examines the visual outcome of cataract surgery in diabetic pat ents. A retrospective study was performed over a 26 month period in a general hospital eye clinic. Eighty-five consecutive diabetic patients who underwent cataract surgery were categorized according to their type of diabetes, duration and treatment, operative technique, pre-operative visual acuity (VA) and degree of retinopathy. Visual acuity and retinopathy status were recorded at a minimum of 4 months postoperatively. Factors affecting visual outcome and progression of retinopathy were then examined. Of the 107 eyes of the 85 consecutive cases, 55 were without retinopathy (NR), 21 had background retinopathy (BDR), six had background retinopathy with macular oedema (BDR/MO), four had proliferative retinopathy and 12 cases had inadequate fundal view. In the NR and BDR groups, 90 and 81% of patients, respectively, had improved VA compared with 33% of patients with BDR/MO. Retinopathy progressed in 50% of BDR/MO patients compared with progression in 9 and 19% of NR and BDR patients, respectively. The present study illustrates the poor visual outcome in patients with severe, untreated retinopathy, particularly maculopathy, following cataract surgery. Larger prospective studies are needed to better define risk groups and pre-operative treatment strategies.