In-vehicle Feedback Research Articles

Framework for behaviour change implemented in real-time and post-trip interventions of the H2020 i-DREAMS naturalistic driving project

The aim of the European funded Horizon 2020 project i-DREAMS11†Information about the i-DREAMS project can be found on the website: https://idreamsproject.eu is to develop, implement and evaluate a cluster of innovative real-time and post-trip interventions to improve road safety among both private and professional drivers operating different modes in road (i.e., car, bus, truck) and rail by means of a field trial with 600 participants in five different countries (i.e., Belgium, UK, Germany, Greece, and Portugal). This paper presents the theoretical paradigms of behavioural change adopted in the i-DREAMS interventions, and elaborates on the methodological framework used to determine intervention objectives, select suitable techniques for behavioural change, and further translate these into a series of gamification features to be integrated into an in-vehicle feedback display, and a smartphone app supported by an online web-platform.

Mitigating Teen Driver Distraction: In-Vehicle Feedback Based on Peer Social Norms.

To investigate the efficacy of in-vehicle feedback based on peer social norms in mitigating teen driver distraction. Distraction is a significant problem among teen drivers. Research into the use of in-vehicle technologies to mitigate this issue has been limited. In particular, there is a need to study whether social norms interventions provided through in-vehicle feedback can be effective. Peers are important social referents for teens; thus, normative intervention based on this group is promising. Socially proximal referents have a greater influence on behavior; thus, tailoring peer norm feedback based on gender may provide additional benefits. In this study, 57 teens completed a driving simulator experiment while performing a secondary task in three between-subject conditions: (a) postdrive feedback incorporating same-gender peer norms, (b) postdrive feedback incorporating opposite-gender peer norms, and (c) no feedback. Feedback involved information based on descriptive norms (what others do). Teens' self-reported frequency of distraction engagement was positively correlated with their perceptions of their peers' engagement in and approval of distractions. Feedback based on peer norms was effective in reducing distraction engagement and improving driving performance, with no difference between same- and opposite-gender feedback. Feedback based on peer norms can help mitigate driver distraction among teens. Tailoring social norms feedback to teen gender appears to not provide any additional benefits. Longer-term effectiveness in real-world settings should be investigated.

A randomized trial to test the impact of parent communication on improving in-vehicle feedback systems

This randomized controlled trial evaluated the impact of integrating Steering Teens Safe, a parent communication intervention, with feedback from an in-vehicle video recording system. In-vehicle video systems that trigger a recording when the vehicle exceeds a g-force threshold have been used to provide feedback to young drivers. Few of these programs have involved parental engagement. Parent-teen dyads were randomized to three groups and 150 dyads completed the study. All groups received an in-vehicle video system that recorded driving events. The control group received no feedback or intervention. In the first intervention group, teens received real-time feedback, and parent-teen dyads received summary feedback, based on information recorded by the in-vehicle system. The second intervention group received the same feedback, plus parents were taught strategies to improve communication with their teen about safe driving. The primary outcome variable was unsafe driving event rates per 1000 miles driven and the primary independent variable was group assignment. Generalized linear models were used to calculate effect estimates. Compared with the control group, the Event Recorder Feedback group had a rate ratio of 0.35 (95% CI = 0.24 – 0.50) and the combined intervention group (Event Recorder Feedback and parent communication) had a rate ratio of 0.21 (95% CI = 0.15 – 0.30). Furthermore, the combined intervention group had a significantly lower event rate than the Event Recorder Feedback only group (rate ratio = 0.60, 95% CI = 0.41 – 0.87). While in-vehicle feedback systems can help reduce unsafe driving events in early independent driving, teaching parents strategies for effective communication with their young driver may further improve impact.

Haptic Foot Pedal: Influence of Shoe Type, Age, and Gender on Subjective Pulse Perception.

This study investigates the influence of shoe type (sneakers and safety boots), age, and gender on the perception of haptic pulse feedback provided by a prototype accelerator pedal in a running stationary vehicle. Haptic feedback can be a less distracting alternative to traditionally visual and auditory in-vehicle feedback. However, to be effective, the device delivering the haptic feedback needs to be in contact with the person. Factors such as shoe type vary naturally over the season and could render feedback that is perceived well in one situation, unnoticeable in another. In this study, we evaluate factors that can influence the subjective perception of haptic feedback in a stationary but running car: shoe type, age, and gender. Thirty-six drivers within three age groups (≤39, 40-59, and ≥60) took part. For each haptic feedback, participants rated intensity, urgency, and comfort via a questionnaire. The perception of the haptic feedback is significantly influenced by the interaction between the pulse's duration and force amplitude and the participant's age and gender but not shoe type. The results indicate that it is important to consider different age groups and gender in the evaluation of haptic feedback. Future research might also look into approaches to adapt haptic feedback to the individual driver's preferences. Findings from this study can be applied to the design of an accelerator pedal in a car, for example, for a nonvisual in-vehicle warning, but also to plan user studies with a haptic pedal in general.

The combined effects of driver attitudes and in-vehicle feedback on fuel economy

This paper presents results from a study of driver feedback, driver attitudes, and the adoption of ecodriving behaviors. The study ran for one year; each driver was engaged in the experiment for four weeks. Narrowly defined, ecodriving represents the set of behaviors that a driver can use to minimize the energy use of a trip after the trip has begun. The general ecodriving behaviors are moderating acceleration, top speed, and braking. Ecodriving has long been recognized as a potential source of reductions in transportation energy use, with reduction estimates ranging widely from less than 5% to over 20% depending on context. In-vehicle feedback that provides drivers with salient information suited to their personal goals may be one way to motivate ecodriving. Although many studies have tested unique feedback designs, little research has been conducted into the cognitive precursors to driver behavior change that may underlie the adoption or rejection of ecodriving practices, and therefore underlie the effectiveness of any feedback design. This study examines both precursor cognitive factors and driver behavior changes with the introduction of energy feedback, using a framework hypothesizing that attitudes, social norms, perceived control, and goals influence behavior and behavior change. The study finds that the introduction of a feedback interface can both activate these cognitive factors and result in behavior change. Furthermore, the study finds that there was an overall 4.4% reduction in fuel consumption due entirely to one group that showed increases in their knowledge of fuel economy and reported high levels of technical proficiency during the experiment. Statistically significant relationships are found in this group between the magnitude of cognitive change and the magnitude of behavior change – supporting the theoretical framework. The second group made no improvement and may have been confused by the feedback. The effect of baseline (pre-feedback) performance of the drivers indicates drivers that already have highly efficient driving styles do not benefit much from feedback.

Efficacy, strengths, and limitations of in-vehicle feedback technology to reduce young drivers’ risk: Recent findings from the literature

The main goal of this presentation is to describe the current state of research in regards to in-vehicle feedback technology aimed at young drivers. Young drivers have a higher crash risk worldwide than other age groups, and the first months after licensing are the most dangerous. Several countries have achieved important crash reductions over the past years that are associated with the implementation of graduated driver licensing programs. Provisions of these primary and secondary prevention programs includes older age at licensing and driving privileges provided gradually to young drivers, such as driving at night and with young passengers. Development of in-vehicle technology, such as feedback devices, now allows easier implementation of secondary and tertiary interventions aimed at young drivers. A number of randomized controlled trials have been published and results suggest the efficacy of in-vehicle feedback devices in reducing some indices of risky behavior, such as g-force events. Research has also identified several obstacles to deployment of these devices, including acceptance by both young drivers and their parents. Results of recent studies by our research group on efficacy (N = 160) and acceptance (N = 380) of in-vehicle devices in 18-24 year old drivers, and individual factors that influence these dimensions, will be presented in light of the current research. The main discussion will address the efficacy of in-vehicle feedback technology to reduce young drivers’ risk, its strengths, limitations, and obstacles to implementation in primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention programs.

Interface design of eco-driving support systems – Truck drivers’ preferences and behavioural compliance

The aim of the study was to investigate the perceived usefulness of various types of in-vehicle feedback and advice on fuel efficient driving. Twenty-four professional truck drivers participated in a driving simulator study. Two eco-driving support systems were included in the experiment: one that provided continuous information and one that provided intermittent information. After the simulator session, the participants were interviewed about their experiences of the various constituents of the systems. In general, the participants had a positive attitude towards eco-driving support systems and behavioural data indicated that they tended to comply with the advice given. However, different drivers had very different preferences with respect to what type of information they found useful. The majority of the participants preferred simple and clear information. The eco-driving constituents that were rated as most useful were advice on gas pedal pressure, speed guidance, feedback on manoeuvres, fuel consumption information and simple statistics. It is concluded that customisable user interfaces are recommended for eco-driving support systems for trucks.

Reviewing In-vehicle Systems to Improve Fuel Efficiency and Road Safety

Road transport plays a significant role in various industries and mobility services around the globe and has a vital impact on our daily lives. However it also has serious impacts on both public health and the environment. In-vehicle feedback systems are a relatively new approach to encouraging driver behavior change for improving fuel efficiency and safety in automotive environments. While many studies claim that the adoption of eco-driving practices, such as eco-driving training programs and in-vehicle feedback to drivers, has the potential to improve fuel efficiency, limited research has integrated safety and eco-driving. Therefore, it is crucial to understand the human factors related theories and practices which will inform the design of an in-vehicle Human Machine Interface (HMI) that could provide real-time driver feedback and consequently improve both fuel efficiency and safety. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the current state of published literature on in-vehicle systems to identify and evaluate the impact of eco-driving and safety feedback systems. This paper also discusses how these factors may conflict with one another and have a negative effect on road safety, while also exploring possible eco-driving practices that could encourage more sustainable, environmentally-conscious and safe driving behavior. The review revealed a lack of comprehensive theoretical research integrating eco-driving and safe driving, and no current available HMI covering both aspects simultaneously. Furthermore, the review identified that some eco-driving in-vehicle systems may enhance fuel efficiency without compromising safety. The review has identified a range of concepts which can be developed to influence driver acceptance of safety and eco-driving systems within the area of HMI. This can promote new research aimed at enhancing our understanding of the relationship between eco-driving and safety from the human factors viewpoint. This provides a foundation for developing innovative, persuasive and acceptable in-vehicle HMI systems to improve fuel efficiency and road safety.

A field operational trial evaluating a feedback–reward system on speeding and tailgating behaviors

Objective: This paper investigates the effect of a feedback–reward system on speeding and tailgating behaviors. Background: Inappropriate speed choice and headway increase crash risks. A wide range of countermeasures such as law enforcement and educational messages are in effect to limit speeding and tailgating behaviors. However, these countermeasures are not tailored to the behavior of the individual, and may be absent in some situations. Emerging technology can circumvent the limits of current countermeasures by providing real-time feedback to alert the drivers to these inappropriate behaviors. Further, incentives can be utilized to increase drivers’ motivation to adapt their driving behavior according to feedback. Previous research provides encouraging findings for both real-time feedback and incentives. Method: A field trial was conducted with 37 participants with the system installed in participants’ own vehicles. Real-time in-vehicle feedback was provided based on speed limit compliance and safe headway maintenance. Participants also accumulated reward points and could view related information on a secured website. The trial consisted of three phases: baseline (two weeks), intervention with the system (twelve weeks), and post-intervention without the system (two weeks). Results: A cluster analysis based on baseline data revealed two driving styles: more speed and headway compliant (Cluster A), less speed and headway compliant (Cluster B). Overall, the intervention closed the gap between the two groups. For speed limit compliance, both groups became more compliant in the intervention phase with a slight decline in the post-intervention phase, which was still better than the baseline. For headway compliance, Cluster A did not have any changes throughout the trial, whereas for Cluster B, the headway compliance rate increased with the intervention and then decreased slightly in the post-intervention phase, which again was still better than the baseline. Conclusion: The results are promising, in particular as the group of drivers who were less speed and headway compliant during the baseline and needed the intervention more, benefited more from it.

Augmenting the Technology Acceptance Model with Trust: Commercial Drivers’ Attitudes towards Monitoring and Feedback

This study evaluates truck drivers’ attitudes toward an on-board monitoring system (OBMS), using an extended version of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) that accounts for drivers’ trust in OBMS. Crashes that involve trucks incur a high cost to society and driver-related factors contribute to about one third of all large truck fatal crashes in the US. Therefore, safety initiatives that can increase drivers’ awareness of their risky behaviors are highly desirable. In-vehicle feedback systems are designed to serve this purpose; however, their benefits will not be realized unless their information can positively influence safe driving. Acceptance constructs for the proposed model were measured using a survey administered after the monitoring system was introduced to the drivers but before the system was actually installed in their trucks. In line with the TAM, the results demonstrated that perceived usefulness is the most important determinant of intention to use the OBMS. Trust was also a major determinant of intention to use, suggesting that the acceptance model can be usefully augmented by this construct.

Safe driving in a green world: A review of driver performance benchmarks and technologies to support ‘smart’ driving

Road transport is a significant source of both safety and environmental concerns. With climate change and fuel prices increasingly prominent on social and political agendas, many drivers are turning their thoughts to fuel efficient or ‘green’ (i.e., environmentally friendly) driving practices. Many vehicle manufacturers are satisfying this demand by offering green driving feedback or advice tools. However, there is a legitimate concern regarding the effects of such devices on road safety – both from the point of view of change in driving styles, as well as potential distraction caused by the in-vehicle feedback. In this paper, we appraise the benchmarks for safe and green driving, concluding that whilst they largely overlap, there are some specific circumstances in which the goals are in conflict. We go on to review current and emerging in-vehicle information systems which purport to affect safe and/or green driving, and discuss some fundamental ergonomics principles for the design of such devices. The results of the review are being used in the Foot-LITE project, aimed at developing a system to encourage ‘smart’ – that is safe and green – driving.

Perceptions and Experiences of Participants in a Study of In-Vehicle Monitoring of Teenage Drivers

Objectives: To assess the perceptions and experiences of participants in a study of a device that monitored teenagers’ driving. Methods: A device that continuously monitors and reports risky driving maneuvers was installed in vehicles of 84 newly licensed teenagers. Study groups varied by whether parents had access to a Web site that summarized their teenagers’ driving and by whether in-vehicle alerts provided feedback to drivers. Recruitment of subjects and problems with the device were documented. Teenagers and parents were interviewed after removal of the device. Results: Although the study was conducted in a large urban area, recruitment progressed slowly. Parents who declined to participate usually said their teenagers opposed it, or they were concerned about intruding on the privacy of their children or jeopardizing trust with them. Both parents and teenagers thought in-vehicle alerts helped teenagers drive more safely, although two thirds of teenagers tried to drown out the alerts with loud music. Parents found the Web site useful but reported fewer Web site visits over time. Most parents would prefer receiving information through summary report cards rather than through a Web site. Both parents and teenagers thought the overall system was effective in improving teenagers’ driving. Most parents said the Web site and/or device helped them talk to their teenagers about their driving. Parents thought the most effective system would be an in-vehicle alert with immediate parental notification; teenagers preferred a system allowing them to correct behavior before parental notification. Conclusions: The difficulties in recruiting families for a study of in-vehicle monitoring and feedback technology suggest that gaining broad acceptance may be challenging. Although many teenagers were annoyed by the technology, most said they drove more safely because of it. Sending report cards to parents and allowing teenagers to correct behavior before parents are notified may increase the usefulness and acceptability of monitoring systems.