In-season Game Research Articles

The Difference Between Throwing and Practice Volumes in Youth Softball Athletes With and Without Upper Extremity Pain.

Research indicates that mechanics differ between athletes with and without upper extremity pain; however, it is unclear which modifiable risk factors exist for throwing-related pain in softball athletes. To determine whether sport specialization, throwing, practice, and strength and conditioning training volumes vary between youth softball athletes with and without upper extremity pain. It was hypothesized that youth softball athletes with upper extremity pain would participate in softball year-round and have greater throwing, practice, and strength and conditioning volumes compared with those without pain. Cross-sectional study; Level of evidence, 3. A total of 232 youth softball athletes from travel ball, middle school, and high school leagues were invited to complete a survey to assess pain, sport specialization, throwing, practice, and strength and conditioning training volumes. Participants were classified into upper extremity pain and no pain groups based on their survey answers. The responses were compared between groups using Mann-Whitney U and chi-square tests. A total of 101 athletes-with a mean ± SD age of 13.3 ± 2.3 years, height of 161 ± 13.4 cm, and weight of 59.8 ± 14.8 kg-completed the survey and were included for analysis. The response rate was 43.53%, with 22 athletes in the upper extremity pain group and 79 athletes in the no pain group. A significant difference was observed between hours devoted per week to off-season softball practice (U, 626.6; Z =-2; P = .045), where those without upper extremity pain spent 4 fewer median hours (6 hours) practicing softball per week in the off-season compared with those with pain (10 hours). Also, a significant difference was found between the number of throws during an in-season game (U, 457; Z, -2.28; P = .022), where those without upper extremity pain reported 21 fewer median throws (70 throws) during an in-season game compared with those with pain (91 throws). Furthermore, 77% of those who reported upper extremity pain continued to play despite their pain. There were no other significant differences between demographic characteristics, specialization, injury history, and primary position, as well as throwing, practice, and strength and conditioning volumes. Our study demonstrates that youth softball athletes with upper extremity pain had more throws during in-season games and increased hours per week devoted to off-season practice than athletes without upper extremity pain. Our findings support the need for softball stakeholders (eg, coaches, clinicians, parents, and administrators) to engage in further research and recommendations regarding in-season pitch counts and off-season rest.

Correlations Between Preseason Functional Test Scores and Game Performance in Female Collegiate Volleyball Players.

BackgroundFunctional tests (FT) are assessment tools that attempt to evaluate balance, flexibility, strength, power, speed, or agility through performance of gross motor skills. FT are frequently administered by coaches or sports medicine professionals to evaluate athletic ability, to predict performance, to identify athletes at risk for injury, or to evaluate an athlete’s ability to return to sport after injury. Functional tests which can provide accurate or predictive information regarding athletic ability would be advantageous to coaching staffs or medical professionals.PurposeThe primary purpose of this study was to identify correlations between preseason FT scores and in-season game statistics in a cohort of female collegiate level volleyball (VB) players. A secondary purpose was to present FT descriptive data for this cohort based on level of competition, player position, and starter status.Study Designprospective cohort; correlationalMethodsOne hundred and thirty-one female collegiate VB players representing three levels of competition completed four FT [standing long jump (SLJ), single-leg hop (SLH), lower extremity functional test (LEFT), and the Y-Balance Test - Lower Quarter (YBT-LQ)] at the start of the preseason. Player statistics were collected from team records at the completion of the season.ResultsStarters performed significantly better on all tests. There were moderate negative correlations between LEFT scores and game statistics for liberos, defensive specialists, and outside hitters. There were moderate positive correlations between YBT-LQ composite scores and game statistics for liberos, defensive specialists, hitters, and middle blockers. There were also low to moderate level positive correlations between SLJ and SLH scores and game performance for outside hitters. There were low to moderate level positive correlations between SLH scores and game performance for middle blockers and opposite side hitters.ConclusionsThe results of this study indicate that there are low to moderate correlations between some preseason functional test scores and some game statistics. The SLJ, SLH, LEFT, and YBT-LQ tests may help coaches with talent identification and/or may influence training strategies.Level of Evidence3

Association Of Age, Injury, And The Provision Of Self-directed Exercise Programs Among Competitive Softball Pitchers

It is believed, but not well studied, that off-season and pre-season conditioning regimens result in reduced in-season pitching injuries. Age and off-season training are possible factors in determining in-season injury risk. PURPOSE: To investigate injury incidence and explore the relationships between 1) age, 2) provision of in-season and off-season training regimens, 3) pain during in-season game play and 4) reported injury history among female softball pitchers. METHODS: An online questionnaire for athlete demographics, sport participation, training regimens, and injury history was completed by 38 softball pitchers [21 female high school (HS) and 17 collegiate softball pitchers] with average age of 17 ± 2.23 yrs. RESULTS: 21 of the 38 pitchers (55.26%) reported a softball related injury. Across all aged pitchers, the most common injuries occurred at the shoulder and low back. Compared to HS pitchers, collegiate pitchers reported greater: number of injuries, incidence of pain during in game play, and provision of in-season skill focused and general exercise regimens (Table 1), p < 0.05. There was no association of injury and receipt of an arm care program (p = 0.342), or exercise regimen (p = 0.342) from players’ schools. Pitchers with a history of injury were more likely to have received an off-season exercise regimen from their school compared to those without report of injury, p = 0.012. CONCLUSIONS: Preliminary questionnaire findings reveal greater report of injury and incidence of pain during in game play among collegiate players than HS players. The provision of off-season and arm care regimens did not influence the occurrence of injuries. Findings of limited provision of in-season skill and general exercise regimens and arm care information to HS pitchers may foreshadow resultant cumulative overuse injuries at the collegiate level. Lack of trainer oversight with off-season exercise regimens may influence the intended efficacy of injury prevention.

Epidemiology of Concussion in the National Football League, 2015-2019.

Concussion in American football, and specifically the National Football League (NFL) is a major area of interest and key focus for injury prevention. Complete and accurate characterization of when, how, and to whom these injuries occur can facilitate injury reduction efforts. Existing studies of concussion in the NFL use publicly available data, potentially limiting data quality and the inferences that can be made. Concussion incidence in the NFL decreased across the 2015-2019 seasons. Descriptive epidemiology study. Level 4. Concussion incidence, including counts, one-season risk, and rates per game and player-plays, among active NFL players from 2015 to 2019 is described by year, season, play type, and roster position. A total 1302 concussions were identified from 2015 to 2019 among 1004 players. Of these, 80% occurred in NFL games. The average annual incidence of in-season game concussions changed over the study period, from 230.7 per season (2015-2017) to 177.0 per season (2018-2019); this represented a 23% decrease in game settings (P < 0.01). Practice concussions fluctuated across the years of the study from 38 to 67 per season (average = 50.8/season). There were 70.6 concussions per 100 preseason games, which was slightly higher than the regular season rate per game of 61.7. Overall, there were 790 regular season game concussions across 4,657,243 player-plays and 114,428 player-games during the 5-year study. In regular season games, the majority of concussions were sustained on running and passing plays (n = 119/season), and the highest average rate per play occurred on kickoffs (0.69/100 plays). Defensive secondary (cornerbacks, safeties, and generic defensive backs) and offensive line incurred the most concussions, and the highest rates of concussion were among tight ends and wide receivers. Concussions in the NFL are a key focus for player safety. Concussion reduction strategies were implemented before 2018, after which there was a sustained 2-year decrease in concussion incidence, providing a new benchmark from which to work toward further injury reduction.

Assessing the External Load Associated With High-Intensity Activities Recorded During Official Basketball Games.

Load monitoring in basketball is fundamental to develop training programs, maximizing performance while reducing injury risk. However, information regarding the load associated with specific activity patterns during competition is limited. This study aimed at assessing the external load associated with high-intensity activities recorded during official basketball games, with respect to different (1) activity patterns, (2) playing positions, and (3) activities performed with or without ball. Eleven male basketball players (six backcourt, five frontcourt, age: 20.5 ± 1.1 years, stature: 191.5 ± 8.7 cm, body mass: 86.5 ± 11.3 kg; experience: 8.5 ± 2.4 years) competing in the Lithuanian third division were recruited for this study. Three in-season games were assessed via time-motion analysis and microsensors. Specifically, the high-intensity activities including sprints, high-intensity specific movements (HSM) and jumps were identified and subsequently the external load [PlayerLoad™ (PL) and PlayerLoad™/min (PL/min)] of each activity was determined. Linear mixed models were used to examine differences in PL, PL/min and mean duration between activity pattern, playing positions and activities performed with or without ball. Results revealed PL was lower in jumps compared to sprints [p < 0.001, effect size (ES) = 0.68] and HSMs (p < 0.001, ES = 0.58), while PL/min was greater in sprints compared to jumps (p = 0.023, ES = 0.22). Jumps displayed shorter duration compared to sprints (p < 0.001, ES = 1.10) and HSMs (p < 0.001, ES = 0.81), with HSMs lasting longer than sprints (p = 0.002, ES = 0.17). Jumps duration was longer in backcourt than frontcourt players (p < 0.001, ES = 0.33). When considering activity patterns combined, PL (p < 0.001, ES = 0.28) and duration (p < 0.001, ES = 0.43) were greater without ball. Regarding HSMs, PL/min was higher with ball (p = 0.036, ES = 0.14), while duration was longer without ball (p < 0.001, ES = 0.34). The current findings suggest that external load differences in high-intensity activities exist among activity patterns and between activities performed with and without ball, while no differences were found between playing positions. Practitioners should consider these differences when designing training sessions.

Relationship Between Preseason Training Load, Match Performance, and Match Activities in Professional Rugby League

Crang, ZL, Hewitt, A, Scott, TJ, Kelly, VG, and Johnston, RD. Relationship between pre-season training load, match performance and match activities in professional rugby league. J Strength Cond Res 36(9): 2581-2588, 2022-This study aimed to establish the relationship between preseason training loads, technical match performance, and physical match activities in rugby league. Twenty-two professional rugby league players (age: 24.7 ± 4.0 years; height: 184.3 ± 4.7 cm; and body mass: 101.1 ± 9.9 kg) participated in the study. Training loads and physical match activities were monitored using global positioning systems. Total distance (m), high-speed running distance (VT 1IFT ; distance covered above estimated first ventilatory threshold [≥68% of 30-15 intermittent fitness test]) and total session rating of perceived exertion from all field-based (32.5 ± 8.5) and gym-based sessions (39.1 ± 12.5) were used to quantify preseason loads. Physical match activities were measured as total and high-speed running distance relative to individual playing time, whereas technical match activities and performance scores were used to evaluate individual match performance. To examine the relationship between physical match activities, technical performance, and preseason load, Pearson's correlation coefficients were quantified for each in-season game before performing a Fisher Z Transformation. Preseason high-speed running distance was positively associated with high-speed match activities ( r = 0.34-0.51), whereas negatively associated with technical performance scores ( r = -0.51 to -0.35) and hit up m·min -1 of match-play ( r = -0.30 to -0.17). It seems high speed running performed in the preseason period positively influences in-season physical match activity profiles, however, are unlikely to positively impact technical match performance.

Timing of Return to Batting Milestones Following Ulnar Collateral Ligament Reconstruction in Professional Baseball Players

Objectives:Ulnar collateral ligament reconstruction (UCLR) is a common procedure in professional baseball position players. Timing of return to hitting following UCLR is unknown. The purpose of this study was to determine the time to return to batting milestones after UCLR as well as the effect of UCLR upon batting performance in professional baseball players. The authors’ hypothesized that position players would return to batting in an in-season game prior to fielding in an in-season game and hitting performance would remain unchanged following UCLRMethods:All professional position players who underwent UCLR between 2010-2018 were included. Time to batting milestones following UCLR was analyzed. Batting performance before and after UCLR was compared and analyzed.Results:Overall, 141 UCLRs (96% performed on the dominant arm) in 137 position players were included (86% minor leaguers). Four players underwent revision, all within one year of the primary UCLR. With regard to position, catchers and shortstops were over-represented. With regard to batting side, 57% batted from the right and 12% batted as switch-hitters, and thus 76% of surgeries were on the lead arm. While 91% of players were able to return to any throwing at all, there was a progressive gradual decline during the rehabilitation progress such that 77% were able to return to hitting in a real game and 75% were able to return to fielding in a real game. The first dry swing occurred at 150±49 days after surgery, first batting practice occurred at 195±58 days after surgery, and first hitting in a real game occurred at 323±92 days after surgery. However, players generally saw a decrease in their utilization, with fewer at bats (p<0.001) translating into fewer hits (p<0.001) and runs (p<0.001).Conclusion:Professional position players begin swinging at 150 days following UCLR while they do not hit batting practice until 195 days and do not hit in a real game until 323 days following UCLR. Players saw a decrease in hitting utilization following UCLR.Figure 1.

Timing of Return to Batting Milestones After Ulnar Collateral Ligament Reconstruction in Professional Baseball Players

Background: Ulnar collateral ligament reconstruction (UCLR) is a common procedure in professional baseball position players. Timing of return to hitting after UCLR is unknown. Purpose/Hypothesis: The purpose was to determine the time to return to batting milestones after UCLR as well as the effect of UCLR upon batting performance in professional baseball players. The hypothesis was that position players would return to batting in an in-season game before fielding in an in-season game, and hitting performance would remain unchanged after UCLR. Study Design: Cohort study; Level of evidence, 3. Methods: All professional position players who underwent UCLR between 2010 and 2018 were included. Time to batting milestones after UCLR was analyzed. Batting performance before and after UCLR was compared and analyzed. Results: Overall, 141 UCLRs (96% performed on the dominant arm) in 137 position players were included (86% Minor League players). Four players underwent revision, all within 1 year of the primary UCLR. With regard to position, catchers and shortstops were overrepresented. With regard to batting side, 57% batted from the right and 12% batted as switch-hitters. Of the surgeries, 76% were on the trail/back arm. While 91% of players returned to some form of throwing, there was a progressive gradual decline as the rehabilitation process progressed, as only 77% were able to return to hitting in a real game and 75% were able to return to fielding in a real game. The first dry swing occurred at 150 ± 49 days after surgery, the first batting practice occurred at 195 ± 58 days after surgery, the first hitting in a real game occurred at 323 ± 92 days after surgery, and the first fielding in a real game occurred at 343 ± 98 days after surgery. However, players generally saw a decrease in their utilization, with fewer at bats (P < .001) translating into fewer hits (P < .001) and runs (P < .001). Conclusion: Professional position players begin swinging at 150 days (approximately 5 months) after UCLR, while they do not hit in batting practice until 195 days (approximately 6.5 months) and do not hit in a real game until 323 days (approximately 10.7 months) after UCLR. Players see a decrease in hitting utilization after UCLR. On average, players hit in a real game 20 days before fielding in a real game.

Association between Muscle Damage and Head Impacts in High School American Football.

Subconcussive head impacts (SHI), defined as impacts to the cranium that do not result in concussion symptoms, are gaining traction as a major public health concern. The contribution of physiological factors such as physical exertion and muscle damage to SHI-dependent changes in neurological measures remains unknown. A prospective longitudinal study examined the association between physiological factors and SHI kinematics in 15 high school American football players over one season. Players wore a sensor-installed mouthguard for all practices and games, recording frequency and magnitude of all head impacts. Serum samples were collected at 12 time points (pre-season, pre- and post-game for five in-season games, and post-season) and were assessed for an isoenzyme of creatine kinase (CK-MM) primarily found in skeletal muscle. Physical exertion was estimated in the form of excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC) from heart rate data captured during the five games. Mixed-effect regression models indicated that head impact kinematics were significantly and positively associated with change in CK-MM but not EPOC. There was a significant and positive association between CK-MM and EPOC. These data suggest that when examining SHI, effects of skeletal muscle damage should be considered when using outcome measures that may have an interaction with muscle damage.

Misconceptions in NFL Injuries: A Study on the Achilles

Category:Sports, Trauma, Ankle, AchillesIntroduction/Purpose:Injuries are an ever-present entity in the National Football League, with recent research highlighting American football with the highest injury incidence among all major sports. A torn Achilles can sideline a player for six to twelve months and reduce their power rankings by over fifty percent. Within Achilles tears, there was a focus on comparing rookie rates to the rest of the players, examining tear rates for different game conditions and studying the day of the week the injury occurred. Due to the impact of the injury and limited research, we sought to examine Achilles tears in the NFL from 2009-2016 to identify trends correlating tears with game and player demographics.Methods:NFL players with a diagnosed Achilles tear between 2009 and 2016 were selected as the study population for this retrospective analysis. Data on NFL injury was collected from an established database, previously comprised of publicly available athlete information. NFL player profiles were then employed to determine position, team and game statistics at time of injury. Injury rates were calculated as a percentage of total league games on Thursdays and Sundays. The proportion of rookies in the NFL was approximated by summing the number of draft picks and the number of signed, undrafted free agents and measured against the total number of roster spots before the commencement of the season. Game surface was discerned at time of injury by consulting a timeline of the field surfaces and cross referencing the date of the game. Game conditions, such as weather and temperature, were discerned from the game logs published on the NFL website.Results:There were 101 documented Achilles tears. Sixty-four percent (65/101) occurred before the official season, in training or pre-season games. Only 1% (1/101) of tears occurring during post-season play-offs. Twenty-nine percent (19/65) of the pre- season tears occurred in rookies and 97% (35/36) of the in-season game tears affected non-rookies. Thirty-six percent (36/101) of all documented tears occurred in undrafted free agents. Of players with Achilles tear, 58.41% (59/101) returned to play in the NFL after injury. Despite an average age of 26.7 years, the tear distribution was bimodal with players, ages 24 and 36, exhibited the highest rates of tear. With regard to tears during games, 43.18% occurred on grass and 56.82% occurred on turf. These values mirror their field representation in games. The average game temperature was 67.04 degrees Fahrenheit with wide stratification (range: 1-91 degrees). When examining rate of tears for players during away versus home games, there was not a significant difference of note; of the 45 in-game tears, 21 (46.67%) occurred in home games and 24 (53.33%) during away games.Conclusion:In our focused analysis of the Achilles in NFL athletes, we show no significant difference in tear rates when comparing grass and artificial turf surfaces and in comparing Thursday and Sunday games. When reviewing experience level, a large percent of the tears occurred in rookie players, especially during the pre-season, despite these players making up less than a quarter of the athletes. We also show that tears were not restricted to certain weather conditions. When analyzing career length post tear, most players that returned to play continued to perform at a high level. This challenges the perception of AT tear as a career-ending injury.

Association of physiological variables with subconcussive head impacts in high school American football

ObjectiveThe purpose of this investigation was to examine the relationships between subconcussive head impact frequency and magnitude and measures of physical exertion and muscle damage.BackgroundSubconcussive head impacts, or impacts that do not present with concussion symptoms, are gaining traction as a major public health concern. However, there is a gap in knowledge about the contribution of physiological variables, such as muscle damage and physical exertion, to neurological measures used to assess subconcussive impact-dependent changes. The unknown contribution of physical exertion and strenuous exercise is often listed as a limitation in field studies of subconcussive head impacts.Design/MethodsFifteen high school football players wore mouthguards installed with triaxial accelerometers and gyroscopes in order to quantify the linear and rotational accelerations of every head impact sustained throughout one season (practices and games). Additionally, serum samples were collected at twelve time points (pre-season, pre- and post-competition for five in-season games, and post-season) and assayed for CK-MM, the skeletal muscle-specific isoenzyme of creatine kinase. Subjects wore heart rate monitors during the five games, and heart rate data were used to estimate physical exertion in terms of excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC).ResultsMixed-effect regression modeling (MRM) showed significant and positive associations between CK-MM and subconcussive head impact kinematic variables, in addition to a significant and positive association between CK-MM and EPOC. The models were adjusted for cumulative head impact exposures up to each game and the pre-season serum CK-MM levels, when applicable.ConclusionsWhen investigating subconcussive head impacts, the effects of muscle damage should be considered when using correlated outcome measures, such as inflammatory biomarkers and vestibular assessments.

Patient, Injury, Assessment, and Treatment Characteristics and Return-to-Play Timelines After Sport-Related Concussion: An Investigation from the Athletic Training Practice-Based Research Network.

To describe the patient, injury, assessment and treatment characteristics, as well as return-to-play timelines and clinical findings at discharge for adolescent patients after sport-related concussion. Retrospective analysis of electronic medical records. Athletic training facilities of secondary school members of the Athletic Training Practice-Based Research Network (AT-PBRN). In total, 1886 patient records were reviewed. [1204 (63.8%) male, 682 (36.2%) female, age = 15.3 ± 1.9 years, height = 169.5 ± 13.5 cm, mass = 70.3 ± 17.0 kg]. Patients were diagnosed with a concussion by an athletic trainer or team/directing physician. None. Descriptive analysis of patient, injury, assessment, treatment, and participation status characteristics, as well as discharge information. Injury demographic forms were completed for 1886 concussion cases. A concussion-specific evaluation form was completed for 55.9% (n = 1054) of cases. Treatment documentation was completed on 829 patients (44.0% of initial documented cases). Discharge forms were completed for 750 patients (40.0% of initial documented cases). Most cases were coded as 850.9-Concussion (85.5%, n = 642) and occurred during an in-season game (49.4%, n = 308). Time lost from competition was 24.9 ± 39.9 days. Most concussion cases documented in this study were not on-field emergencies, as indicated by their normal clinical examinations and the lack of immediate referral to an emergency department. However, certain aspects of the clinical examination were often not assessed during the initial evaluation. These findings describe concussion assessment and recovery in adolescents and reinforce the need for a standardized approach to concussion assessment and appropriate documentation.

Relationship Between Physical Fitness at the End of Preseason and the Inseason Game Performance in Japanese Female Professional Baseball Players.

Watanabe, Y, Yamada, Y, Yoshida, T, Matsui, T, Seo, K, Azuma, Y, Hiramoto, M, Miura, Y, Fukushima, H, Shimazu, A, Eto, T, Saotome, H, Kida, N, and Morihara, T. Relationship between physical fitness at the end of preseason and the inseason game performance in Japanese female professional baseball players. J Strength Cond Res 33(6): 1580-1588, 2019-This study examined anthropometric and fitness profiles of Japanese female professional baseball players and investigated the relationship between players' physical fitness and inseason game performance. Fifty-seven players who were registered in the Japan Women's Baseball League (JWBL) participated. Height, body mass, grip strength, back strength, knee extension and flexion strength, hamstring extensibility, vertical jump height, and horizontal jump distance were measured at preseason (February and March) in 2013. Game performance during the 2013 season (March-November) was obtained from official JWBL statistics. Vertical jump height showed significant positive correlations with individual performance records (e.g., total bases [r = 0.551], slugging percentage [r = 0.459], and stolen bases [r = 0.442]). Similar relationships were observed between horizontal jump distance and performance statistics in most cases. By contrast, grip, back, and lower-limb strength, as well as hamstring extensibility were not significantly correlated with game performance. Stepwise regression analysis selected vertical jump height as an independent variable, significantly correlating with several game performance measures (e.g., total bases: adjusted R = 0.257). Also, vertical jump height and body mass index were identified as independent variables significantly associated with stolen bases (adjusted R = 0.251). Maximal jump performance, rather than simple isometric muscle strength or flexibility, is a good performance test that can be used at the end of preseason to predict inseason batting and stolen base performance. Our findings demonstrate the importance of constructing preseason training programs to enhance lower-limb muscular power that is linked to successful inseason performance in female baseball players.

Oculomotor Response to Cumulative Subconcussive Head Impacts in US High School Football Players

Repetitive subconcussive head impacts in sports have emerged as a complex public health issue. Most of these head impacts remain asymptomatic yet have the potential to cause insidious neurological deficit if sustained repetitively. Near point of convergence (NPC) values have shown to reflect subclinical neuronal damage; however, the longitudinal pattern of NPC changes in association with subconcussive head impacts remains unclear. To examine the NPC response to recurring subconcussive head impacts in a single high school football season through a series of repeated measurements. This prospective case-series study of US varsity high school football players included baseline measurements of NPC, measurements at pregame and postgame points from 6 in-season games, and postseason follow-up measurements (a total of 14 points). An accelerometer-embedded mouthguard measured head impact frequency and magnitude from all practices and games. During the 6 games, players wore chest-strap heart rate monitors to record heart rate and estimate their excess postexercise oxygen consumption, accounting for possible physical exertion effects on NPC values. Players participated in practices and games with no restriction. Near point of convergence. The 12 included players were all boys, with a mean (SD) age of 16.4 (0.5) years. A total of 8009 head impacts, 177 907 g of peak linear acceleration, and 16 123 371 rad/s2 of peak rotational acceleration were recorded from the players in a single football season. There was a significant increase in NPC over time until the middle of the season (mean [SD] NPC: baseline, 5.25 [1.49] cm; pregame 3, 6.42 [1.93] cm; P = .01), which was significantly associated with subconcussive head impact frequency and magnitude (0.02 cm per 100 g of peak linear acceleration [SE, 0.0108; 95% CI, 0.0436-0.004]; P = .01; 0.023 cm per 10 000 rad/s2 of peak rotational acceleration [SE, 0.009; 95% CI, 0.041-0.0105]; P = .02). However, NPC values began to normalize toward baseline level from midseason (mean [SD] NPC: baseline, 5.25 [1.49] cm; pregame 6, 5.75 [2.23] cm; P = .32), as supported by a significant quadratic trend (β [SE], -0.002 [0.001] cm/d; P = .003), while participants continued to incur subconcussive head impacts. This longitudinal case series study suggests that NPC can be perturbed over the long term by subconcussive head impacts but may normalize over time. The oculomotor system may have an adaptational capacity to subclinical head impacts, yet the mechanism for such remains an open question and warrants further investigation.

Measuring Fantasy Team and Favorite Team Interactivity Through Implicit Association

Traditional team fandom is a vital component of contemporary spectator sport marketing and communication. However, fantasy sport has recently emerged as a potential threat to team fandom, particularly with regard to the interactivity provided by the virtual game. Research has found evidence that fantasy sport can be both a substitute and a complement to traditional team fandom. However, with limited control over traditional team outcomes and perceived control over fantasy team outcomes, interactivity has emerged as a potential differentiator between the two forms of fandom. Guided by the fantasy football participation and consumption model and endowment theory, the current study conducted an implicit association experiment on the interactivity and passiveness of contemporary professional sport fandom. These results were combined with self-report data to explore potential indicators of implicit bias. The experiment uncovered an association of interactivity to favorite team players and passiveness to fantasy team players. The post hoc examination of potential predictors found the drive to compete, and in-season game outcomes positively impacted the unexpected interactivity implicit bias.

The Quantification of Within-Week Session Intensity, Duration, and Intensity Distribution Across a Season in Australian Football Using the Session Rating of Perceived Exertion Method.

Team-sport training requires the daily manipulation of intensity, duration, and frequency, with preseason training focusing on meeting the demands of in-season competition and training on maintaining fitness. To provide information about daily training in Australian football (AF), this study aimed to quantify session intensity, duration, and intensity distribution across different stages of an entire season. Intensity (session ratings of perceived exertion; CR-10 scale) and duration were collected from 45 professional male AF players for every training session and game. Each session's rating of perceived exertion was categorized into a corresponding intensity zone, low (<4.0 arbitrary units), moderate (≥4.0 and <7.0), and high (≥7.0), to categorize session intensity. Linear mixed models were constructed to estimate session duration, intensity, and distribution between the 3 preseason and 4 in-season periods. Effects were assessed using linear mixed models and magnitude-based inferences. The distribution of the mean session intensity across the season was 29% low intensity, 57% moderate intensity, and 14% high intensity. While 96% of games were high intensity, 44% and 49% of skills training sessions were low intensity and moderate intensity, respectively. Running had the highest proportion of high-intensity training sessions (27%). Preseason displayed higher training-session intensity (effect size [ES] = 0.29-0.91) and duration (ES = 0.33-1.44), while in-season game intensity (ES = 0.31-0.51) and duration (ES = 0.51-0.82) were higher. By using a cost-effective monitoring tool, this study provides information about the intensity, duration, and intensity distribution of all training types across different phases of a season, thus allowing a greater understanding of the training and competition demands of Australian footballers.

0148 ASSOCIATION BETWEEN LATE-NIGHT TWEETING AND NEXT DAY GAME PERFORMANCE AMONG NBA BASKETBALL PLAYERS

The adverse effects of sleep deprivation on athletic performance are widely accepted, especially among sports requiring motor coordination, tactical decision-making, and aerobic physical exertion. However, there is limited research assessing the real-world effects (e.g., points scored) of sleep deprivation on elite athletes. We combined two publicly available databases to assess the association between late-night tweeting behavior and next-day performance among 90 National Basketball Association (NBA) players. Twitter© account activity was obtained using the Twitter REST API, while Yahoo Sports (Inc.) provided statistics from NBA players during in-season games. Starting from a set of 581,190 tweets on Twitter’s NBA-related list, we filtered the dataset down to 19,705 tweets from verified Twitter accounts from real NBA players with who played in recent seasons, between 2009–2016. We focused on East Coast teams playing on the East Coast to avoid the potentially confounding effects of prolonged travel and jetlag on tweeting behavior and performance. Late-night tweets were defined as those occurring between 11:00 pm on the night prior to gameday and 7:00 am on gameday. Performance variables included total points scored, shooting percentage, assists, defensive rebounds, turnovers and player fouls. Within-subjects analysis was performed. Preliminary analyses show that late-night tweeting was associated with fewer points scored per game (8.2 vs. 9.2, p<0.01) and a lower shooting percentage for both field goals (36% vs. 41%, p<0.01) and free throws (39% vs. 44%, p<0.01). Planned additional analyses include assists, defensive rebounds, turnovers and player fouls. Late-night tweeting behavior among a relatively large cohort of professional basketball players across multiple seasons is significantly associated with decreased next-day performance. Furthermore, the use of Twitter account activity may have broad utility as a readily accessible tool in the investigation of sleep deprivation in a variety of epidemiological contexts. R01HD073352 (L. Hale, PI).

Appraisal in a Team Context: Perceptions of Cohesion Predict Competition Importance and Prospects for Coping.

Athletes' precompetitive appraisal is important because it determines emotions, which may impact performance. When part of a team, athletes make their appraisal within a social context, and in this study we examined whether perceived team cohesion, as a characteristic of this context, related to appraisal. We asked 386 male and female intercollegiate team-sport athletes to respond to measures of cohesion and precompetitive appraisal before an in-season game. For males and females, across all teams, (a) an appraisal of increased competition importance was predicted by perceptions of higher task cohesion (individual level), better previous team performance, and a weaker opponent (team level) and (b) an appraisal of more positive prospects for coping with competitive demands was predicted by higher individual attractions to the group (individual level). Consequently, athletes who perceive their team as more cohesive likely appraise the pending competition as a challenge, which would benefit both emotions and performance.

Predictors of the precompetitive anxiety response: Relative impact and prospects for anxiety regulation

The intensity and interpretation of precompetitive anxiety symptoms are associated with athletes’ performance and adherence. Whereas the optimal symptom intensity is task- and individual-dependent, a facilitative symptom interpretation is generally adaptive. Past research has identified several variables thought to influence symptom intensity and interpretation. This study set out to compare a selection of prominent predictors and discuss them in terms of anxiety regulation. Prior to an in-season game, female and male intercollegiate team sport athletes reported their precompetitive anxiety symptom intensity and interpretation (Directional Modification of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2) as well as their perceptions of team cohesion (Group Environment Questionnaire). Beforehand, they indicated their competitive trait anxiety (Sport Anxiety Scale-2), competitive experience, and starting status. Further, gender, team ranking, opponent ranking, and game location were recorded. Logistic regression analyses revealed higher trait anxiety as the strongest predictor of more intense precompetitive anxiety symptoms and more debilitative interpretations. In addition to trait anxiety, better team ranking and an away game location predicted more intense symptoms, whereas higher cohesion predicted a more facilitative interpretation. In terms of effective anxiety regulation, trait anxiety appears to have the greatest effect and, although being hard to reduce, this justifies the time-investment and individual focus in interventions. Conversely, cohesion promises small effects. However, being comparatively easy to enhance, it might constitute a convenient alternative to improve an entire team's symptom interpretation.

한국,미국 프로야구구단의 웹사이트 비교분석

The World Wide Web (hereafter Web) has been heralded as the most significant new marketing channel since the advent of television. Marketers have the opportunity to create and develop new marketing techniques for the first time in almost 50 years. When marketers first used television to reach a mass audience, revenues for the television industry grew rapidly. As Web business transactions grow rapidly, it is important for sport marketers to learn how to use this new technology effectively. The purpose of this study was to determine the content and general evaluation of existing Korean and USA Professional Baseball team Web sites. The population for the study was limited to the official Web sites of teams as of April 10, 2002. The criteria for choosing the sample included the following : (a) the sites chosen were to be of teams in season, (b) the Web sites were to be the official site of the team, (c) the sites chosen were to provide a broad spectrum of Web design and content, (d) the Web sites were to be of professional baseball teams in Korea and USA. To evaluate the general Web sites of professional baseball teams in Korea and USA, the revised questionnaire and criteria from Hwang(2000), Lee(1999), Weber(1990) were administrated. A coding sheet was developed to catalog the information provided in the official Korean and USA Professional Baseball team Web sites. Web site analysis occurred on April 15∼16, 2002, Content analysis and general evaluation were used to profile current Korean and USA Professional Baseball team Web sites. The content of the sites was categorized by the researcher then arranged in order of frequency measured. Categories for content, based on the marketing mix, were (a) product, which included the physical team, ticket sales through the Web, or merchandise ; (b) price, information on ticket pricing ; (c) promotion, information on team promotions and Web promotional activities ; (d) place, information on preseason or in-season game location and stadia ; and (e) other, Web site information not belonging in one of the previous categories. The content categories were classified according to the marketing mix in order to demonstrate marketing strategies used by the developers of the Web sites. To evaluate general Web site of professional baseball teams, 12 items were chosen. The resources of the Web are currently being utilized by 38 of the 38teams. Product : Roster, News Releases, Player Biographies, Team History. These were the category used by all clubs. Ticket Sales through the Internet-Here Web users could purchase tickets through the Web site. Often, this site would contain a link to Ticket master. 87.5% percent of organizations used this category. Price : Ticket Sales-Used by most of the organizations, this area provided information on individual ticket sales as well as group sales and season ticket sales except KIA and SK Promotion : This area provided many promotional opportunities. Usually, a person, especially a child, could ask a professional ball player about some aspect of the game. E-mail addresses of the players were also available here. Most of Web sites utilized this function. Place : 2002 Schedule-Surprisingly not used by all clubs, 100 percent had detailed information on the 2001 schedule. Ballpark-Here information was provided on each team`s home ballpark. In general evaluation of Web site, LG provided 11/12 items was ranked best Web site among Korean professional baseball teams. LG and Doosan were ranked AAA group in KBT. Seattle Mariners, St Louis Cardinals, NY Mets, LA Dodgers and SF Giants were ranked AAA group in NEB. These teams provided 9/12 items.