Impulsive Ss Research Articles

Impulsive motor behavior: Effects of personality and goal salience.

This experiment used a circle tracing paradigm to extend our recent theoretical development concerning the contributions of extraversion and neuroticism to impulsive performance on continuous motor tasks. Subjects (N = 137) completed the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire and were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 circle conditions: The goal condition provided subjects with a salient behavioral end point for their tracings, whereas the no-goal condition promoted behavioral uncertainty. In both conditions, Ss were asked to trace the circle under neutral and inhibition instructions. Using Gray's impulsivity and anxiety dimensions to group subjects, impulsive subjects under inhibition instructions displayed significantly faster tracing speed than nonimpulsive subjects in the presence of a salient goal, whereas anxious subjects appeared behaviorally impulsive in a situation promoting uncertainty and response conflict. Conceptualizing impulsivity and anxiety in terms of extraversion and neuroticism, with impulsive Ss as neurotic extraverts and anxious Ss as neurotic-introverts, it is proposed that Ss' level of extraversion determines the type of stimuli to which they are responsive, and that level of neuroticism influences the magnitude of this reaction.

Impulsive motor behavior: Effects of personality and goal salience.

This experiment used a circle tracing paradigm to extend our recent theoretical development concerning the contributions of extraversion and neuroticism to impulsive performance on continuous motor tasks. Subjects (N = 137) completed the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire and were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 circle conditions: The goal condition provided subjects with a salient behavioral end point for their tracings, whereas the no-goal condition promoted behavioral uncertainty. In both conditions, Ss were asked to trace the circle under neutral and inhibition instructions. Using Gray's impulsivity and anxiety dimensions to group subjects, impulsive subjects under inhibition instructions displayed significantly faster tracing speed than nonimpulsive subjects in the presence of a salient goal, whereas anxious subjects appeared behaviorally impulsive in a situation promoting uncertainty and response conflict. Conceptualizing impulsivity and anxiety in terms of extraversion and neuroticism, with impulsive Ss as neurotic extraverts and anxious Ss as neurotic-introverts, it is proposed that Ss' level of extraversion determines the type of stimuli to which they are responsive, and that level of neuroticism influences the magnitude of this reaction.

Personality and conditioning: A test of four models.

Four experiments were conducted to test hypotheses derived from 4 alternative models of individual differences in instrumental conditioning. A standard go--no-go discrimination learning task was used in each of the 4 experiments. The results indicate that individual differences in performance of this discrimination are more consistently and strongly associated with impulsivity and anxiety than with extraversion and neuroticism. In each of the experiments, high anxiety hindered the learning of a go--no-go discrimination more among high impulsive Ss than among low impulsive Ss, and in 2 of the experiments high anxiety actually facilitated learning among low impulsive Ss. These findings are incompatible with Eysenck's and Gray's hypotheses regarding extraversion but are not inconsistent with Newman's. Aspects of these results do support Spence's and Gray's models of anxiety and instrumental conditioning. However, both of these models were contradicted by other trends in the data. A modification of Gray's model of impulsivity and anxiety that emphasizes the role of expectancies was proposed to fit these data.

Personality and conditioning: a test of four models.

Four experiments were conducted to test hypotheses derived from 4 alternative models of individual differences in instrumental conditioning. A standard go--no-go discrimination learning task was used in each of the 4 experiments. The results indicate that individual differences in performance of this discrimination are more consistently and strongly associated with impulsivity and anxiety than with extraversion and neuroticism. In each of the experiments, high anxiety hindered the learning of a go--no-go discrimination more among high impulsive Ss than among low impulsive Ss, and in 2 of the experiments high anxiety actually facilitated learning among low impulsive Ss. These findings are incompatible with Eysenck's and Gray's hypotheses regarding extraversion but are not inconsistent with Newman's. Aspects of these results do support Spence's and Gray's models of anxiety and instrumental conditioning. However, both of these models were contradicted by other trends in the data. A modification of Gray's model of impulsivity and anxiety that emphasizes the role of expectancies was proposed to fit these data.

Impulsivity and persistence in adult inpatient "impulse" offenders.

Related cognitive tempo, self-report measures, and ratings of behavior to task persistence and persistence in treatment in adult inpatient/drug/alcohol/sex ("impulse") offenders (N = 43). Matching Familiar Figures test latencies and self-control scale scores were related to task persistance, but only the behavior ratings produced significant relationships with persistence in treatment. Although cognitively impulsive Ss were less task persistent than reflectives, impulsive and reflective Ss did not differ on self-reported locus of control and self-control, on the behavioral ratings, or on persistence in treatment. Behavioral ratings were most efficient for making predictions about persistence in treatment.

A Qualitative Analysis of Oral Reading Errors of Reflective and Impulsive Second Graders: A Follow-Up Study

This study investigates differences between reflective (REF) and impulsive (IMP) second-graders in number and category of oral reading errors and their correction. Kagan's Matching Familiar Figures test (MFF) was employed in selecting extreme groups of 25 REF and 25 IMP Ss from all 166 second-graders in one midwestern city using the same second-grade basal reader for reading instruction. The Ss' oral reading and their answers to questions over two stories (of second- and third-grade readability levels) were audio-tape-recorded. Five scorers were trained to code the oral reading errors. The scores for each error category were based on the combined stories, and were means of the errors coded by the five scorers. Reliabilities of error scores ranged from .84 to .99. Results indicate: (a) more REF than IMP Ss with low error scores but insignificant differences in mean number of errors, (b) proportionately more graphically similar errors for REF than for IMP Ss but no significant differences in any other category, (c) more corrections by REF Ss overall and within the categories of graphically dissimilar errors and errors appropriate to the preceding but not the following context, (d) no significant differences between REF and IMP Ss in number of repetitions, rate of reading, nor in comprehension scores.

Differential reinforcement of low rates performance by impulsive and reflective children

Third-grade boys classified as either cognitively impulsive or reflective were reinforced for key pressing according to a DRL (differential reinforcement of low rates) 6-sec schedule of reinforcement. Half of each group received instructions about the behavioral requirements for obtaining reinforcements. Prior to DRL training, impulsive Ss showed a low probability of key press responding at long interresponse time (IRT) intervals while reflective Ss exhibited an equal probability of terminating either short or long IRTs. During training and in the absence of instructions, impulsives exhibited a less precise temporal discrimination, characterized by a greater predominance of response bursts (0–2 sec IRTs) following reinforcements, than reflective Ss. While impulsive and reflective Ss displayed similar frequencies of collateral behavior between successively reinforced responses, impulsives engaged in the reinforced response more frequently and tended ( p < .08) to obtain fewer reinforcements. Instructions served to enhance the DRL performance.

Visual recognition memory in reflective and impulsive children

Twenty-nine reflective and 29 impulsive fifth-grade boys were tested in a forced-choice visual recognition memory task. In three of the experimental conditions (1FD, 2FD, 4FD) the number of visual feature differences between the correct and incorrect test stimuli was 1, 2, or 4, and correct response could not be based on the name of the stimulus; in the fourth condition (DO) the correct and incorrect test stimuli had different names. As predicted, performance on DO and 4FD was equivalent and was superior to that on 1FD and 2FD. Although reflective Ss made more correct responses than impulsive Ss in all four conditions, only the performance difference in Condition 1FD was significant. Mean correct response latencies mirrored the correct response data. These results were consistent with the Selfridge-Neisser feature-testing model of recognition memory, and it was argued that the primary underlying basis for the dimension of reflection-impulsivity was that reflective Ss tend to engage in a more detailed visual feature analysis of stimulus arrays. Strong inferential evidence was provided that visual feature analysis independent of verbal labeling was responsible for successful recognition performance in these Ss.

Problem-solving Strategies of Reflective, Impulsive, Fast-accurate, and Slow-inaccurate Children

AULT, RUTH L. Problem-solving Strategies of Reflective, Impulsive, Fast-accurate, and Slowinaccurate Children. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1973, 44, 259-266. First-, third-, and fifth-grade Ss classified as impulsive on the Matching Familiar Figures test asked questions in a 20-questions game indicative of less mature cognitive strategies than Ss classified as reflective and fastaccurate. Younger reflective Ss achieved scores on the 20-questions game equivalent to those of older impulsive Ss, indicating equivalence on this cognitive development measure. Ordering the array aided the production of constraint-seeking questions for first and third graders, but not for fifth graders. Reflective and impulsive Ss were not differentially responsive to this manipulation, and no groups were aided by removing pictures from the array. The data suggest that Ss in the same grade seek equally efficient information and appear to respond appropriately to information acquired in the 20-questions game.

Problem-Solving Strategies of Reflective, Impulsive, Fast-Accurate, and Slow-Inaccurate Children

AULT, RUTH L. Problem-solving Strategies of Reflective, Impulsive, Fast-accurate, and Slowinaccurate Children. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1973, 44, 259-266. First-, third-, and fifth-grade Ss classified as impulsive on the Matching Familiar Figures test asked questions in a 20-questions game indicative of less mature cognitive strategies than Ss classified as reflective and fastaccurate. Younger reflective Ss achieved scores on the 20-questions game equivalent to those of older impulsive Ss, indicating equivalence on this cognitive development measure. Ordering the array aided the production of constraint-seeking questions for first and third graders, but not for fifth graders. Reflective and impulsive Ss were not differentially responsive to this manipulation, and no groups were aided by removing pictures from the array. The data suggest that Ss in the same grade seek equally efficient information and appear to respond appropriately to information acquired in the 20-questions game.

Cognitive styles in reflective, impulsive, and hyperactive boys and their mothers.

10 reflective and 10 impulsive boys were compared with 10 hyperactive boys on measures of reflection-impulsivity and field dependence-independence. These reflective boys were more field-independent than the impulsive and hyperactive ones. However, the hyperactive and impulsive Ss did not differ on either cognitive style measure, suggesting that the school problems of this hyperactive group cannot be explained in terms of inefficient cognitive strategies. Mothers' cognitive styles were also assessed. Although there were no group differences, mothers with low error scores on the measure of reflection-impulsivity were more field-independent, suggesting that these styles may be related in adults.

Reflectivity as an influence on focusing behavior of children

This study investigated the influence of reflective and impulsive problemsolving styles on the information-processing proficiency (focusing) of fifth- and ninth-grade boys and girls using a concept identification procedure developed by Levine (1966). The major findings were that: (a) ninth-grade Ss as compared with fifth-grade Ss, and reflective Ss as compared with impulsive Ss tended to be more proficient focusers and had longer latencies following feedback; (b) longer latencies following negative feedback were associated with more proficient focusing on Levine's task. It was concluded that developmental differences in focusing are related to developmental differences in reflection-impulsivity. An examination of Levine's task revealed the likelihood that a reflective cognitive style facilitates focusing because it allows for the more effective retrieval and recoding of information.

Analysis and Modification of Search Strategies of Impulsive and Reflective Children on the Matching Familiar Figures Test

ZELNIKER, TAMAR; JEFFREY, W. E.; AULT, RUTH; and PARSONS, JACQUELYNNE. Analysis and Modification of Search Strategies of Impulsive and Reflective Children on the Matching Familiar Figures Test. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1972, 43, 321-335. Eye movements of 9-year-old Ss designated as impulsive or reflective were recorded while the Ss were performing on three tasks: Task I-Matching Familiar Figures (MFF), Task II-Differentiating Familiar Figures (DFF), and Task III-a second set of MFF problems. The MFF task required the Ss to find the one variant that was identical with the standard, whereas on the DFF the Ss had to find the variant that was different from the standard. The eye-fixation data in Task II for both impulsive and reflective Ss showed a decrease in percentage of fixations on the standard and an increase in systematic comparisons of the variants. The modified scanning strategy found in Task II (DFF) transferred to Task III (MFF) problems for impulsives only; they made fewer errors in Task III than in Task I although their response latency was as short as their response latency in Task I. Data from a reaction-time (RT) task with variable prearatory intervals showed that with long preparatory intervals impulsive Ss had longer reaction times than reflective Ss, indicating the poorer ability of impulsive Ss to sustain attention.

ANALYSIS AND MODIFICATION OF SEARCH STRATEGIES OF IMPULSIVE AND REFLECTIVE CHILDREN ON THE MATCHING FAMILIAR FIGURES TEST

ZELNIKER, TAMAR; JEFFREY, W. E.; AULT, RUTH; and PARSONS, JACQUELYNNE. Analysis and Modification of Search Strategies of Impulsive and Reflective Children on the Matching Familiar Figures Test. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1972, 43, 321-335. Eye movements of 9-year-old Ss designated as impulsive or reflective were recorded while the Ss were performing on three tasks: Task I-Matching Familiar Figures (MFF), Task II-Differentiating Familiar Figures (DFF), and Task III-a second set of MFF problems. The MFF task required the Ss to find the one variant that was identical with the standard, whereas on the DFF the Ss had to find the variant that was different from the standard. The eye-fixation data in Task II for both impulsive and reflective Ss showed a decrease in percentage of fixations on the standard and an increase in systematic comparisons of the variants. The modified scanning strategy found in Task II (DFF) transferred to Task III (MFF) problems for impulsives only; they made fewer errors in Task III than in Task I although their response latency was as short as their response latency in Task I. Data from a reaction-time (RT) task with variable prearatory intervals showed that with long preparatory intervals impulsive Ss had longer reaction times than reflective Ss, indicating the poorer ability of impulsive Ss to sustain attention.

INFORMATION PROCESSING AND THE MODIFICATION OF AN "IMPULSIVE CONCEPTUAL TEMPO"

HEIDER, ELEANOR ROSCH. Information Processing and the Modification of an Impulsive Conceptual Tempo. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1971, 42, 12761281. 80 middle-class and 80 lower-class boys were tested on a visual and a verbal task under 3 conditions designed to modify an tempo. For both tasks, instructions which contained an explanation of appropriate task strategy were more efective in reducing errors and lengthening response latency for lower-class impulsive Ss than was either an enforced delay of response or increased motivation for accuracy.

THE INFLUENCE OF COGNITIVE STYLE ON PERCEPTUAL LEARNING

ODOM, RICHARD D.; MCINTYRE, CURTIS W.; and NEALE, GAIL S. The Influence of Cognitive Style on Perceptual Learning. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1971, 42, 883-891. The perceptual learning of reflective and impulsive kindergarten children was compared. The type of information being processed and learned was assessed by means of a transfer procedure. The reflective Ss' performance indicated that they perceived and evaluated information based on the feature differences of stimulus arrays. The information processed by the impulsive Ss could not be identified, but several possibilities were suggested. The implications of the general findings for cognitive and perceptual processing were discussed.

REFLECTIVE AND IMPULSIVE OBSERVING BEHAVIOR

Ss were classified as cognitively reflective and impulsive by means of the Matching Familiar Figures Test (MFF). In a second, modified administration of the MFF, observing behavior (frequency, duration, and target) was recorded. Differences in means between the 2 groups were compared for a number of indices of attention deployment for both standard and alternative stimuli. As predicted, reflective Ss had significantly higher mean scores on all absolute measures of frequency and duration of looking behavior. But when relative deployment of attention was calculated, reflective Ss, as compared to impulsives, were found to devote proportionately less looking time as well as less frequent looks to the standard, to the most observed alternative, and to the chosen alternative. Impulsive Ss ignored 23 times as many alternatives as reflectives, suggesting both a more biased and more peaked distribution of attention. Different strategies or algorithms underlying the performance of the two groups are suggested.