Improved Water Relations Research Articles

RICE HUSK ASH (RHA) - A POTENTIAL SOURCE FOR IMPROVING PHOSPHORUS NUTRITION IN POTATO (S. tuberosum L.)

Use of alternative sources of nutrients such organic manures, residues and by-products to chemical fertilizers may enhance not only the yield but cut down the fertilizers use. Therefore, present investigation was carried out to explore the possibility of using rice husk ash (RHA) as a source of phosphorus in potato crop. Two pot experiments were conducted on Kufri Jyoti and Kufri Girdhari to determine the effect of rice husk ash on phosphorus nutrition of the crop during 2020-21. Application of rice husk ash (RHA) significantly increased the plant height, haulms (leaf plus stem) biomass, root weight, chlorophyll content (SPAD value) and P content. In Kufri Jyoti, application of 20g RHA per pot significantly increased haulms biomass, tuber yield, relative leaf chlorophyll content and P content in haulms by 17.8 per cent over control. In Kufri Girdhari, application of 40g RHA/ pot also increased the P content by (14.6 %) in haulms over control besides significant increase in haulm yield, root mass and relative leaf chlorophyll content. It was observed that subjecting the crop to moisture stress by withholding the irrigation towards harvest, senescence was delayed in plants fertilized with rice husk ash. RHA application showed a significant and positive correlation with root length and tuber yield (r=0.70). The results of the present study revealed that RHA can be used as a source of phosphorus for potato crop and has potential to improve water relations and nitrogen nutrition as indicated by improved relative leaf chlorophyll content in plants fertilized with RHA.

Individual or successiveseed priming with nitric oxide and calcium toward enhancing salt tolerance of wheat crop through early ROS detoxification and activation of antioxidant defense

Despite the considerable efforts reported so far to enhance seed priming, novel ideas are still needed to be suggested to this sustainable sector of agri-seed industry. This could be the first study addressing the effect of nitric oxide (NO) under open field conditions. The impacts of seed redox-priming using sodium nitroprusside (SNP) and osmo-priming with calcium chloride (CaCl2), both applied individually or successively, were investigated under salinity stress conditions on wheat plants (Triticum aestivum L.). Various parameters, including water relations, growth, yield, photosynthetic pigments, and antioxidant activities (enzymatic and non-enzymatic), were recorded to assess the outcomes of these priming agents on mitigating the negative impacts of salinity stress on wheat plants. Water consumptive use (ETa) and irrigation water applied (IWA) decreased with seeds priming. Successive priming with SNP + CaCl2 induced the greatest values of crop water productivity (CWP), irrigation water productivity (IWP), seed index, grain yield and grain nitrogen content.Under salinity stress, the dry weight of plants was decreased. However, hydro-priming and successive chemical priming agents using combinations of calcium chloride and sodium nitroprusside (CaCl2 + SNP & SNP + CaCl2) preserved growth under salinity stress.Individual priming with sodium nitroprusside (SNP) and calcium chloride (CaCl2) resulted in the lowest recorded content of sodium in the shoot, with a value of 2 ppm. On the other hand, successive priming using CaCl2 + SNP or SNP + CaCl2 induced the contents of potassium in the shoot, with values of 40 ppm and 39 ppm, respectively. Malondialdehyde decreased in shoot significantly withapplicationof priming agents. Successive priming with CaCl2 + SNP induced the highest proline contents in shoot (6 µg/ g FW). The highest value of phenolics and total antioxidants contents in shoot were recorded under successive priming using CaCl2 + SNP and SNP + CaCl2.Priming agents improved the activities of ascorbate peroxidase and catalase enzymes. The successive priming improved water relations (ETa, IWA, CWP and IWP) and wheat growth and productivity under salinity stress more than individual priming treatments.

Enhancing Abiotic Stress Tolerance in Fruit Trees Using Microbial Biostimulants

Global climate change has significantly reduced the yield of many crops due to various abiotic stressors. These stressors include water-related issues such as drought and flooding, thermal changes like extremely low and high temperatures, salinity, and adverse soil pH conditions including alkalinity and acidity. Biostimulants have emerged as promising and effective tools for mitigating the damage caused by these abiotic stressors in plants, ultimately enhancing both the quantity and quality of crops. Biostimulants are naturally derived substances that include humic acid, protein hydrolysates, nitrogenous compounds, seaweed extracts, beneficial bacteria, and molds. Even at low concentrations, biostimulants play a critical role in activating important plant enzymes, inducing antioxidant defenses, improving water relations and photosynthetic activity, stimulating hormone-like activities (particularly auxins, gibberellins, and cytokinins), and modulating root system development. This review discusses the physiological effects of microbial biostimulants on the quality and productivity of fruit crops, as well as their experimental applications.

Amelioration of drought stress in wheat by using plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria and biogas slurry

<p>Drought stress has a significant impact on cereal-based staple food production, particularly in developing countries like Pakistan. To ensure a sustainable and reliable food supply, it is essential to develop comprehensive production plans that incorporate various approaches to mitigate the effects of drought. In a study conducted using a randomized complete block design, we investigated the potential of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) and biogas Slurry (BGs) either individually or in combination to alleviate drought stress at different stages of wheat growth. The two-year field research demonstrated that the application of Azosprillium lipoferum with biogas slurry resulted in improved water relations, chlorophyll content, grain quality, yield, and related characteristics in wheat plants compared to the stressed treatments. Particularly, the combined treatment of PGPR and BGs exhibited the most favorable outcomes. Notably, the combined treatment effectively mitigated drought stress by significantly increasing antioxidant levels (17% APX, 29% POD, 34% CAT, and 41% SOD) during the grain-filling stage (GFS) compared to the controls. The combined treatment resulted in a remarkable 40% improvement in the respective controls at the GFS stage. Overall, the combined use of PGPR and BGs was identified as an effective strategy to enhance the resilience of wheat plants to drought, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions.</p>

Exogenous Application of β-aminobutyric Acid Improved Water Relations, Membrane Stability Index, and Achene Yield in Sunflower Hybrids Under Terminal Drought Stress

Exogenous Application of β-aminobutyric Acid Improved Water Relations, Membrane Stability Index, and Achene Yield in Sunflower Hybrids Under Terminal Drought Stress

Combined application of biochar and partial root-zone drying irrigation improves water relations and water use efficiency of cotton plants under salt stress

Reduced irrigation in combination with biochar application can improve stomatal anatomy, water relations and intrinsic water use efficiency (WUEi), thus having a positive effect on the alleviation of salinity and drought stresses. A split-root pot experiment was executed to explore the effects of two biochar applications (WSP: wheat straw biochar; SWP: soft wood biochar) in combination with three irrigation strategies (FI: full irrigation; DI: deficit irrigation, PRD: partial root-zone drying irrigation) on stomatal anatomy, water relations and WUEi of cotton plants under normal soil (S0, EC=0.36 dS m-1) and saline soil (S1, EC=16.55 dS m-1). The results revealed that both salinity and drought stresses negatively affected plant water relations and reduced stomatal conductance, carbon isotope discrimination (Δ13C), stomatal size (SS) and hydraulic conductance (Kl) while increased leaf abscisic acid (ABA) concentration ([ABA]leaf). However, biochar amendment under salt stress significantly decreased [ABA]leaf while improved leaf water relations, increased Kl, stomatal density (SD), SS, Δ13C and maximum stomatal conductance (gsmax). Meanwhile, compared with FI and DI, PRD plants had greater SD, gsmax, and WUEi but lowered stomatal conductance (gs). Among all treatments, the combined application of WSP and PRD significantly increased SD and gsmax, improved leaf water relations, Kl and [ABA]leaf and WUEi. It is concluded that the altered stomatal features caused by the biochar and irrigation treatments are associated with changes in [ABA]leaf and Kl, and have a major role in affecting plant hydraulic integrity and water use efficiency of cotton exposed to salinity stress.

Sparse-shading red net improves water relations in Valencia orange trees

Top-netting technology improves crop microclimate, and its utilization in fruit tree plantations may mitigate deleterious weather effects. The technology is associated with improved tree water relations, and may result in significant water savings. Photoselective nets may provide additional, crop- and target-dependent, beneficial effects. A previous paper reported results of a five-year trial in Valencia orange, in which three nets were used, pearl, transparent and low shading red, in combination with three irrigation regimes, 100% (I100), standard commercial fertigation, and two reduced rates, 80% (I80) and 60% (I60). Among the different netting types, the combination of red nets and I80 resulted in the highest yield on a multi-annual basis. The current study provides data regarding water relations during stage II, i.e., cell expansion, of fruit development. The red net had higher radiation transmittance and canopy resistance than the pearl net. The higher resistance is an expression of the lower transpiration of the red net, monitored by sap flow, as compared to the other treatments, especially under deficient irrigation. The beneficial effect of the red net was also evidenced from multi-annual stem water potential. These data supplement the enhanced yield effect of the red net, suggesting they are associated with its spectral properties.

Potassium fertilization for improving water relations, photosynthetic pigments and antioxidant defence system in intercropping system of Gossypium hirsutum L. and Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. under different irrigation regimes

The present study evaluated the impact of potassium chloride (KCl) on growth, physiology, photosynthetic pigments and antioxidant enzymes under intercropping system of Gossypium hirsutum L. (RCH-773 variety) and Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. (Manak variety). The intercropping was operated in randomised complete block design under different irrigation schedules. The treatments were given as control (full irrigation), early water stress (no irrigation at vegetative stage), late water stress (no irrigation at flowering stage) and stress (no irrigation) along with three potassium concentrations K0, K1 and K2 (0, 20, 60 kg/acre respectively).The sampling was done at flowering stage (120 days after sowing). A long progressive water stress significantly reduced plant height, fresh and dry weight, leaf area, leaf area index, relative water content, membrane stability index and photosynthetic pigments. But application of potassium fertilizer enhanced all these parameters at a great value. The other parameters i.e. electrolyte leakage, superoxide dismutase and catalase increased in stress conditions. However, under potassium application, electrolyte leakage showed a remarkable decrease while the activity of superoxide dismutase and catalase was increased in control as well as in water stressed plants. It clearly shows that potassium is a strong osmo-regulator, maintains cation-anion balance, acts as co-factor for enzymes and helps plant withstanding drought stress conditions.

Nano-Selenium in the holding solution promotes rose and carnation vase life by improving both water relations and antioxidant status

ABSTRACT Nano-selenium (nano-Se) is an eco-friendly and inexpensive compound. The potential of including it in the holding solution to stimulate vase life was investigated by conducting two experiments. In the first one, dose-response curves were generated by applying different nano-Se concentrations (0–1 and 0–1.5 µM for rose and carnation, respectively) in the holding solution of three cultivars per species. Nano-Se in the holding solution improved vase life in all cases, besides one carnation cultivar. The optimal concentration was considerably higher in carnation as compared to rose (1–1.5 and 0.25–0.75 µM, respectively), and was cultivar dependent. Nano-Se improved cut flower water balance by enhancing water absorption more than transpiration. In the second experiment, the optimal holding solution nano-Se concentration was employed to evaluate the underlying processes in the two cultivars per species, where vase life was mostly increased. Physiological and biochemical characteristics were assessed in both leaf and petal tissues. Nano-Se ameliorated chlorophyll degradation, electrolyte leakage and lipid peroxidation owing to up-regulation of both enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants. In conclusion, the nano-Se-induced vase life extension was associated with both upgraded antioxidant status and improved water relations, setting it as a low-cost and environmentally-safe agent of prolonging floral longevity.

The role of species interactions for forest resilience to drought.

Increasing durations and frequencies of droughts under climate change endanger the sustainable functioning of forests worldwide. The admixture of species with complementary resource use may increase the resilience of forests towards drought; however, little is known about modifications of species interactions (i.e. facilitation and competition) by increasing drought severity in mixed forests. In particular, knowledge on the regulation of central ecohydrological processes, such as tree water fluxes, is lacking. Therefore, we conducted a literature review to assess the impact of species interactions on tree resilience (resistance + recovery) under increasing drought severity. The classification of studies into three drought classes suggested that beneficial species interactions, i.e. through improved water relations, were prevalent under mild droughts. However, with increasing drought, negative effects, such as interspecific competition, occurred. These negative interactions were prominent under extreme droughts, where even trees with complementary resource-use strategies competed for water resources. Fewer data are available on recovery of water fluxes. The limited evidence supported the patterns observed for drought resistance, with facilitation and complementarity of species in mixtures enhancing tree recovery after moderate droughts. However, after extreme droughts, competition effects and reduced recovery for some species were observed, which can strongly compromise tree resilience. While we acknowledge the importance of mixed forests for biodiversity, ecosystem services or pest resistance, we caution that beneficial species interactions may shift under extreme droughts. Thus, there is an urgent need to investigate species interaction effects on resilience in more depth to adapt forest trees to increasing drought stress.

Carbon nanotubes in the holding solution stimulate flower opening and prolong vase life in carnation

BackgroundCut flower longevity is often limited by adverse water relations or oxidative stress. The potential of single- and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs and MWCNTs, respectively) on prolonging vase life was addressed. Dose–response curves were obtained by applying five concentrations (0–80 mg L−1) of SWCNTs or MWCNTs either once as a foliar spray or continuously in the holding solution of three carnation cultivars. Next, the optimal concentration of either SWCNTs or MWCNTs was employed to evaluate several parameters critical for vase life.ResultsFoliar spray application exerted minor effects on water relations, flower opening and keeping quality. By contrast, including CNTs in the holding solution sustained a positive water balance for a longer period, improved flower opening and prolonged vase life. These effects were similar between SWCNTs and MWCNTs, and were concentration-dependent. The optimal concentration for vase life was higher for MWCNTs as compared to SWCNTs, and for two cultivars as compared to the third one. At optimal concentration, SWCNTs or MWCNTs in the holding solution generally maintained turgidity, and alleviated chlorophyll degradation, electrolyte leakage and lipid peroxidation. These effects were related to increased activation of enzymatic (ascorbate peroxidase, catalase, peroxidase and superoxide dismutase) and non-enzymatic (carotenoids, polyphenols, and flavonoids) antioxidants.ConclusionCNTs in the holding solution were very effective in stimulating vase life through improved water relations and enhanced antioxidant machinery stimulation.Graphical

Regulation of Botrytis cinerea Infection and Gene Expression in Cut Roses by Using Nano Silver and Salicylic Acid.

Botrytis cinerea (B. cinerea) is one of the necrotrophic pathogens resulting in the heaviest commercial losses in cut rose flowers, and the severity of gray mold disease partly depends on the presence of ethylene during the storage and transport. The effectiveness of nano silver (NS) and salicylic acid (SA) was assessed as a novel control agent in protecting the cut rose flowers against B. cinerea infection and ethylene damages. The efficacy of NS and SA was compared with an inoculated control (CON). A non-treated control (NT) was also used to evaluate the natural infection process. The results indicated that pretreatment with 20 mg L−1 NS significantly reduced B. cinerea growth in rose petals during vase periods. NS effectively suppressed the mRNA levels of ethylene biosynthesis genes (RhACS2, RhACS4, and RhACO1) and the reduction in expression levels of ethylene receptor genes (RhETR1, RhETR2, and RhETR5) and the downstream regulator RhCTR2 in rose petals after B. cinerea inoculation. NS application also decreased the expression of the B. cinerea snod-prot-like 1 (Bcspl1) gene which acts as the virulence factor in cut roses. In NS flowers, the maximum quantum yield of PSII (Fv/Fm) value was higher and the leaf temperature was lower on day 1, suggesting that these factors can be used for detecting B. cinerea infection and water stress in cut rose flowers. Furthermore, NS improved water relations and extended the vase life of cut rose flowers by 3.3 d, compared with that of NT flowers. In contrast, SA had no inhibitive effects on both B. cinerea growth and ethylene response in cut roses. The findings from the present study highlight NS as a promising new candidate for preventing B. cinerea infection and ethylene damages and for improving the postharvest quality of cut roses exported overseas.

Mitigation of Nickel Toxicity and Growth Promotion in Sesame through the Application of a Bacterial Endophyte and Zeolite in Nickel Contaminated Soil.

Nickel (Ni) bioavailable fraction in the soil is of utmost importance because of its involvement in plant growth and environmental feedbacks. High concentrations of Ni in the soil environment, especially in the root zone, may retard plant growth that ultimately results in reduced plant biomass and yield. However, endophytic microorganisms have great potential to reduce the toxicity of Ni, especially when applied together with zeolite. The present research work was conducted to evaluate the potential effects of an endophytic bacterium Caulobacter sp. MN13 in combination with zeolite on the physiology, growth, quality, and yield of sesame plant under normal and Ni stressed soil conditions through possible reduction of Ni uptake. Surface sterilized sesame seeds were sown in pots filled with artificially Ni contaminated soil amended with zeolite. Results revealed that plant agronomic attributes such as shoot root dry weight, total number of pods, and 1000-grains weight were increased by 41, 45, 54, and 65%, respectively, over control treatment, with combined application of bacteria and zeolite in Ni contaminated soil. In comparison to control, the gaseous exchange parameters (CO2 assimilation rate, transpiration rate, stomatal- sub-stomatal conductance, chlorophyll content, and vapor pressure) were significantly enhanced by co-application of bacteria and zeolite ranging from 20 to 49% under Ni stress. Moreover, the combined utilization of bacteria and zeolite considerably improved water relations of sesame plant, in terms of relative water content (RWC) and relative membrane permeability (RMP) along with improvement in biochemical components (protein, ash, crude fiber, fat), and micronutrients in normal as well as in Ni contaminated soil. Moreover, the same treatment modulated the Ni-stress in plants through improvement in antioxidant enzymes (AEs) activities along with improved Ni concentration in the soil and different plant tissues. Correlation and principal component analysis (PCA) further revealed that combined application of metal-tolerant bacterium Caulobacter sp. MN13 and zeolite is the most influential strategy in alleviating Ni-induced stress and subsequent improvement in growth, yield, and physio-biochemical attributes of sesame plant.

Myco- and photobiont associations in crustose lichens in the McMurdo Dry Valleys (Antarctica) reveal high differentiation along an elevational gradient

Climatically extreme regions such as the polar deserts of the McMurdo Dry Valleys (78° S) in Continental Antarctica are key areas for a better understanding of changes in ecosystems. Therefore, it is particularly important to analyze and communicate current patterns of biodiversity in these sensitive areas, where precipitation mostly occurs in form of snow and liquid water is rare. Humidity provided by dew, clouds, and fog are the main water sources, especially for rock-dwelling crustose lichens as one of the most common vegetation-forming organisms. We investigated the diversity and interaction specificity of myco-/photobiont associations of 232 crustose lichen specimens, collected along an elevational gradient (171–959 m a.s.l.) within the McMurdo Dry Valleys. The mycobiont species and photobiont OTUs were identified by using three markers each (nrITS, mtSSU, RPB1, and nrITS, psbJ-L, COX2). Elevation, positively associated with water availability, turned out to be the key factor explaining most of the distribution patterns of the mycobionts. Pairwise comparisons showed Lecidea cancriformis and Rhizoplaca macleanii to be significantly more common at higher elevations and Carbonea vorticosa and Lecidea polypycnidophora at lower elevations. Lichen photobionts were dominated by the globally distributed Trebouxia OTU, Tr_A02 which occurred at all habitats. Network specialization resulting from myco-/photobiont bipartite network structure varied with elevation and associated abiotic factors. Along an elevational gradient, the spatial distribution, diversity, and genetic variability of the lichen symbionts appear to be mainly influenced by improved water relations at higher altitudes.

24‐epibrassionlide improves photosynthetic response of Rhododendron delavayi to drought

Rhododendron delavayi is an alpine evergreen ornamental plant with strong tolerance to drought stress. Brassinosteroids are promising agents for alleviating the negative effects of drought on plants, but the mechanism by which BRs induce plant resistance to drought is not well understood. The present study investigated the effects of exogenous spray of 24‐epibrassionlide (EBR) at different concentrations (0~1 mg l−1) on the physiological response of R. delavayi to drought caused by no watering for 10 days. With the increase in EBR concentration, net photosynthetic rate, stomatal conductance, transportation rate, light saturated photosynthetic rate, light compensation point, light saturation point, excitation energy capture efficiency of reaction center, actual photochemical efficiency of photosystem II (PSII), photochemical quenching and electron transport rate significantly increased, but there were no significant effects on photosynthetic pigment content. These results suggested that the EBR‐induced improvement in CO2 assimilation under drought was mainly related to stomatal and non‐stomatal factors, and partially attributed to the increased photochemical efficiency of PSII. In addition, the leaf water potential increased with the increase in EBR concentration, while the malondialdehyde, superoxide dismutase, catalase, proline and soluble protein decreased. The results suggested EBR application partially alleviated the negative effect of drought on R. delavayi by improving water relations and decreasing lipid peroxidation and reactive oxygen species production. We concluded that exogenous application of EBR improved photosynthesis and alleviated the negative effects of drought‐induced membrane peroxidation and severe oxidative stress.

Climate warming alters photosynthetic responses to elevated CO2 in prairie plants.

The impact of elevated CO2 concentration ([CO2 ]) and climate warming on plant productivity in dryland ecosystems is influenced strongly by soil moisture availability. We predicted that the influence of warming on the stimulation of photosynthesis by elevated [CO2 ] in prairie plants would operate primarily through direct and indirect effects on soil water. We measured light-saturated photosynthesis (Anet ), stomatal conductance (gs ), maximum Rubisco carboxylation rate (Vcmax ), maximum electron transport capacity (Jmax ) and related variables in four C3 plant species in the Prairie Heating and CO2 Enrichment (PHACE) experiment in southeastern Wyoming. Measurements were conducted over two growing seasons that differed in the amount of precipitation and soil moisture content. Anet in the C3 subshrub Artemisia frigida and the C3 forb Sphaeralcea coccinea was stimulated by elevated [CO2 ] under ambient and warmed temperature treatments. Warming by itself reduced Anet in all species during the dry year, but stimulated photosynthesis in S. coccinea in the wet year. In contrast, Anet in the C3 grass Pascopyrum smithii was not stimulated by elevated [CO2 ] or warming under wet or dry conditions. Photosynthetic downregulation under elevated [CO2 ] in this species countered the potential stimulatory effect under improved water relations. Warming also reduced the magnitude of CO2 -induced down-regulation in this grass, possibly by sustaining high levels of carbon utilization. Direct and indirect effects of elevated [CO2 ] and warming on soil water was an overriding factor influencing patterns of Anet in this semi-arid temperate grassland, emphasizing the important role of water relations in driving grassland responses to global change.

Combined Application of Potassium and Zinc Improves Water Relations, Stay Green, Irrigation Water Use Efficiency, and Grain Quality of Maize under Drought Stress

Maize (Zea mays L.) plays an important role in the global food security, but its production is threatened by climate change, especially drought stress. Potassium (K) and zinc (Zn) are considered useful to mitigate the negative consequences of drought stress in plants. Therefore, the objective of this two-year study was to identify the best combination of K and Zn application to improve the water relations, photosynthetic pigments, yield, irrigation water use efficiency (IWUE) and grain quality of maize sown under mild and severe drought stress conditions. The consisted of three drought stress levels viz. 1) well-watered as control (WW), 2) mild drought (MD) with 25 mm of potential soil moisture deficit (PSMD), 3) severe drought (SD) with 50 mm of PSMD and six K-Zn treatments: i.e. 125, 100 and 150 kg ha−1 K with 0 and 12 kg ha−1 Zn. The results indicated that K-Zn application improved the water relations and chlorophyll contents, biological yield and grain quality, irrespective of water stress treatment. The combined application of K-Zn under mild drought stress produced statistically same biological yield and grain quality as under well-irrigated without K-Zn fertilization and also produced compratively higher IWUE, biological yield and grain quality under sverer drought stress. Hence, the application of K at 150 kg ha−1 in combination with Zn at 12 kg ha−1 might be useful to improve the maize production and grain quality under drought stress. As IWUE was low in WW conditions, therefore, irrigation scheduling must be re-evaluated for optimum water use efficiency.

Can changes in forest management contribute to the reduction of CO2 in the atmosphere? Literature review, discussion and Polish example

Abstract Both COP21 and COP22 stressed the role of forests in climate protection as a natural CO2 sink. With this in mind, the study reviewed some literature findings related to afforestation, stand level management, forest soils, peatland management and storage yards to increase the amount of CO2 absorbed by the forest ecosystem. It was shown that some of the assumptions, for example, afforestation or improved water relations in soils, may contribute to reduced CO2 levels in the atmosphere. Our research was of a review nature and consisted in seeking information in various scientific publications. For a better interpretation of the results, we have divided our research into several parts. In the first part, we analysed the importance of deforestation and afforestation in the context of CO2 accumulation. We discussed the results of research on these issues giving specific examples. We have analysed the possibility of afforestation of new land. Using the example of Poland, we have indicated problems related to this issue. We have analysed the possibility of afforestation of new land. On the example of Poland, we have indicated problems related to this problem. We have come to the conclusion that in today’s Europe, the obstacle to such efforts is the lack of land that can be afforested and the financial incentive to abandon farming for forestry is too low. In the second part, we discussed the role of forest stands in the process of CO2 accumulation and reduction. We discussed breeding treatments that can be performed on racks. We noticed their importance in the CO2 reduction process. We noticed that when the density of forests increased, this has a positive effect on organic carbon storage. We presented and discussed examples of different rotation strategies in the context of their impact on CO2 accumulation. We analysed issues related to obtaining wood raw material and possible further storage of coal or its release into the atmosphere. We have recognized that proper forest soil management is important for CO2 accumulation. Therefore, another part of the research was devoted to the discussion on the role of soil in the process of CO2 accumulation. We discussed examples of using soil for forest and non-forest purposes, looking for the answer: how does this affect CO2 accumulation? In addition, we analysed the impact of soil moisture on processes related to CO2 storage. In our research, we critically treated wood storage as a method of reducing CO2. We also discussed the problem of treating wood as a source of bioenergy. We came to the conclusion that wood as an energy source can have a positive effect on CO2 reduction. The condition is, however, that energy produced from wood replaces energy from fossil fuels. Finally, we presented and discussed financial and legal issues related to CO2 reduction activities involving forests. We have found that attempts to commercialize CO2 emission reduction units for emissions generated in forests should be linked to the environmental responsibility of companies, and as such, should not be included in the current emissions’ trading policies. In the article, we also present a Polish proposal to run coal farms. We discuss their importance in the context of the issues discussed in this article.

Chloride as a Beneficial Macronutrient in Higher Plants: New Roles and Regulation.

Chloride (Cl−) has traditionally been considered a micronutrient largely excluded by plants due to its ubiquity and abundance in nature, its antagonism with nitrate (NO3−), and its toxicity when accumulated at high concentrations. In recent years, there has been a paradigm shift in this regard since Cl− has gone from being considered a harmful ion, accidentally absorbed through NO3− transporters, to being considered a beneficial macronutrient whose transport is finely regulated by plants. As a beneficial macronutrient, Cl− determines increased fresh and dry biomass, greater leaf expansion, increased elongation of leaf and root cells, improved water relations, higher mesophyll diffusion to CO2, and better water- and nitrogen-use efficiency. While optimal growth of plants requires the synchronic supply of both Cl− and NO3− molecules, the NO3−/Cl− plant selectivity varies between species and varieties, and in the same plant it can be modified by environmental cues such as water deficit or salinity. Recently, new genes encoding transporters mediating Cl− influx (ZmNPF6.4 and ZmNPF6.6), Cl− efflux (AtSLAH3 and AtSLAH1), and Cl− compartmentalization (AtDTX33, AtDTX35, AtALMT4, and GsCLC2) have been identified and characterized. These transporters have proven to be highly relevant for nutrition, long-distance transport and compartmentalization of Cl−, as well as for cell turgor regulation and stress tolerance in plants.

Alpha-tocopherol fertigation confers growth physio-biochemical and qualitative yield enhancement in field grown water deficit wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)

Water stress is a major problem to fulfill the world food demand and to solve the problem of malnutrition. Different strategies are being used to solve these problems including the fertigation of plants with different biochemical at different growth stages. The present study was conducted for the induction of drought tolerance in field grown wheat for better yield and nutritional quality through foliar spray of α-tocopherol (α-Toc) at start of reproductive stage. Water stress was maintained based on number of irrigation. Three levels of α-Toc 0.001, 0.01 and 0.1 mM were applied as foliar spray. Water stress significantly reduced the biomass production that associated with the decreased photosynthetic pigments, water relation, photosynthetic efficiency, but increased the lipid peroxidation, leaf relative membrane permeability, activities of antioxidant enzymes and the contents of phenolic, flavonoids, α-toc and ASA. Water stress also negatively effected the different yield attributes and seed nutrient quality. Foliar fertigation of wheat plants with α-Toc significantly improved the water stress tolerance of wheat plants in term of improvement in growth and seed yield associated with improved water relations, photosynthetic efficiency, contents of photosynthetic pigments and improvement in antioxidative defence mechanism (enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants). Fertigation of water stressed wheat plants with α-Toc also improved the seed nutritional quality in terms of the contents of seed phenolics, flavonoids, activities of antioxidant enzymes and the content of α-, β- and γ-tocopherols. In conclusion, it was found that fertigation of water stressed wheat plants not only improved the water stress tolerance but also improved the seed yield and nutritional quality that will not only be helpful for the improvement in wheat yield that also be a step to solve the problem of malnutrition through the bio-fertification of α-Toc.