Improved Heat Dissipation Research Articles

Comparative Analysis of Material Efficiency and the Impact of Perforations on Heat Sinks for Monocrystalline Photovoltaic Panel Cooling

In this research, the design and simulation of a heat sink for photovoltaic panels were carried out using aluminum and copper, the most commonly used materials in heat dissipation systems. This heat sink consisted of fins that were tested both perforated and non-perforated to improve heat dissipation efficiency. This research stems from the need to reduce the temperature of photovoltaic panels during operation, as scientific evidence shows that photovoltaic panels experience a decrease in efficiency as the temperature increases, taking as a reference the temperature under standard test conditions. The simulations of photovoltaic panels with aluminum and copper fins, both perforated and non-perforated, followed a rigorous methodology. For validation, the simulation results were compared with field data, yielding a mean absolute percentage error of 1.71%. The findings indicate that copper fins reduced the temperature of the photovoltaic panel by 2.62 K, resulting in a 1.31% increase in efficiency. Similarly, aluminum fins reduced the temperature by 2.10 K, with a 1.05% increase in efficiency. Perforated copper fins achieved a temperature reduction of 3.07 K, increasing efficiency by 1.54%, while perforated aluminum fins reduced the temperature by 2.49 K, contributing to a 1.25% increase in efficiency.

Effect of Source-Sink Misalignment and Sink Cavity Aspect Ratio on the Thermal Performance of Gallium Heat Sinks

Herein, we numerically investigated methods to improve heat dissipation from the base of a phase-change material (PCM) heat sink exposed to high heat flux (15 W/cm2). The sink cavity exhibited a rectangular cross-section with two opposite vertical walls of high thermal conductivity. These walls serve as heat-dissipating fins. We used gallium, a metallic PCM with high thermal conductivity and a low melting point to improve heat dissipation by leveraging buoyancy-driven circulations within the molten gallium. We adopted a method to position the sink base on top of the heat source surface in such a way to augment temperature gradients within the liquid to induce imbalances in gallium density and consequent internal circulations. In this technique, one vertical wall is subjected to forced-convective heat exchange with the surroundings, while the other remains adiabatic. Subsequently, for the case which showed optimum performance, we relaxed the adiabatic thermal boundary condition applied at one of the vertical walls and replaced it with convective heat transfer condition, and assessed the sink performance based on that. Further, we analyzed the impact of various aspect ratios of the sink cavity on the induced internal circulations and base cooling. Sink cavities with aspect ratios of 1.33, 0.96, and 0.64 corresponding to sink heights of 20, 17, and 14 mm, respectively, were examined under a consistent heat flux applied across a 15-mm base length. We also investigated the precise positioning of the sink base relative to the heat source surface and explored its influence on temperature gradients and gallium density imbalances crucial for induced internal circulations. Results indicate that a sink cavity aspect ratio of 0.96 yields the optimal heat dissipation from the base. Further, aligning the left bottom edge of the sink base with the left edge of the heat source surface maximizes heat dissipation to the ambient surroundings, thereby prolonging latent-heat dumping into the sink before the gallium completely melts. Any misalignment between the sink base and the surface of the heat source may have a profound impact on the temporal evolution of induced internal circulations within the molten gallium, essentially affecting heat dissipation from the sink base.

Qualitative analysis of the coupling effect of fluid velocity distribution in microchannels on the performance of water-cooling lithium-ion batteries system

ABSTRACT Lithium-ion batteries are the direct power sources of electric vehicles, but their high heat flux density restricts their development. Microchannel heat sinks (MCHS) can assist in heat dissipation to overcome this. The distribution of fluid velocity among microchannels has a considerable effect on the performance of MCHS for a water-cooling lithium-ion batteries system. In this paper, a new microchannel heat sink with high depth to width aspect ratio is proposed and the influence of four different aspect ratios on the distribution of fluid velocity among microchannels and heat transfer performance of MCHS was numerically studied by computational fluid dynamics (CFD). The results showed that at the same inlet flow rate, the larger the aspect ratio of the microchannels, the better the uniformity of the internal fluid velocity. The heat performance of microchannel structures with four different aspect ratios for a water-cooling lithium-ion batteries is further investigated experimentally. Compared with the simulation results of the fluid velocity distribution, the coupling effect between the fluid velocity distribution in the microchannels and the heat dissipation performance of a water-cooling lithium-ion batteries is analyzed. The results fully demonstrated that a larger aspect ratio of the microchannels results in a better heat dissipation performance on the surface of the lithium-ion batteries. Optimizing the aspect ratio of the microchannels to facilitate a relatively uniform velocity distribution to improve heat dissipation performance of the water-cooling system may be a key factor to be considered, which provides a new idea for passive thermal management of batteries.

The Influence of Thermophysical Parameters on Thermal Runaway Characteristics for Pouch-Type Lithium-Ion Batteries

Abstract The thermal variation during the temperature rise process of batteries is closely related to multiple physical parameters. Establishing a direct relationship between these parameters and thermal runaway (TR) features under abusive conditions is challenging using theoretical equations due to complex electrochemical and thermal coupling. In this paper, a high-temperature thermal runaway model of pouch-type lithium-ion battery is established through electrical-thermal coupled approach, demonstrating a good agreement between the simulation and experimental results. The results reveal distinct trends in thermal parameters of the early temperature rise, trigger time for TR and peak temperature during TR process, for varying convective heat transfer coefficient, cell specific heat capacity, cell density and cell thermal conductivity. Across various convective heat transfer coefficients, the rates of temperature increase, moments of TR, and peak temperatures within a battery emerge as the cumulative outcomes of competing processes of the intricate exothermic secondary reactions within the battery, and the heat transfer with the surroundings. Batteries with lower heat capacity exhibit reduced thermal inertia and heightened sensitivity to temperature changes. Alterations in the thermal capacity of a battery wield a profoundly significant impact upon the moment of thermal runaway within the battery. Enhancing the thermal conductivity yields limited improvements in heat dissipation during thermal runaway primarily due to the relatively small geometrical scale of the battery. Results of this paper can provide valuable insights for size optimization design, thermal management system optimization design, thermal runaway safety warning and prevention of Lithium-ion batteries.

3D Printable Polymeric Composite Material with Enhanced Conductivity Achieved by Affinity Matching.

Polymer-based conductive composites are lightweight, low-cost, and easily processable materials with important applications in various fields. However, achieving highly conductive and 3D printable polymer-based conductive composites remains challenging. In this study, we successfully developed a highly conductive composite suitable for direct ink writing 3D printing using unsaturated polyester resin as the polymer matrix and graphene nanosheets as conductive fillers and rheological modifiers. Due to the well-matched affinity between graphene nanosheets and unsaturated polyester, the graphene nanosheets aggregate within the unsaturated polyester, forming a 3D conductive network. Moreover, the shearing force during direct ink writing 3D printing induces the orientation of the 2D graphene nanosheets, significantly enhancing their conductivity along the printing direction. At room temperature, the unsaturated polyester resin/graphene composite shows a high conductivity of 69.9 S m-1 while maintaining excellent 3D printability. Structures printed using this material exhibit improved heat dissipation and electromagnetic shielding performance. The reported unsaturated polyester resin/graphene nanosheet composites demonstrate outstanding electrical and heat conductivity and excellent processability, making them promising candidates for applications in electromagnetic shielding, printed electronics, and other fields.

Investigation of hydrothermal characteristics and entropy generation in a microchannel heat sink with elliptical fins

Abstract As the integration of microelectronic devices continues to increase, thermal management issues become increasingly prominent. Microchannel heat sinks are effective for heat dissipation in high heat flux microelectronic devices. This study designs five elliptical finned microchannel heat sinks with different aspect ratios (γ) while maintaining a constant elliptical area to enhance heat transfer performance. The values of γ are 0.74, 0.86, 1, 1.17, and 1.35, respectively. Over the Reynolds number (Re) range of 293 to 740, the hydrothermal characteristics and entropy generation of the microchannels with elliptical fins (MC-EFs) are investigated through numerical simulations. The thermal enhancement mechanism of MC-EFs is analyzed via flow, temperature, and pressure fields. The optimal γ value is determined by maximizing the overall performance factor (OPF) and minimizing the augmentation entropy generation number (Ns,a). Results indicate that introducing elliptical fins in the straight microchannel (SMC) significantly improves heat dissipation. An increase in γ enhances thermal performance but also raises flow resistance. Specifically, when γ increases from 0.74 to 1.35, the Nusselt number (Nu) improves by 10.71%-25.64%, and the friction coefficient (f) increases by 30.92%-57.27%. Overall, at Re = 740, the OPF of the MC-EF with γ = 1.35 reaches a maximum of 1.285, and at Re = 597, the Ns,a for this configuration is minimized to 0.578. These findings provide valuable insights for effective thermal management in microelectronic devices.

Investigating Enhanced Convection Heat Transfer in 3D Micro-Ribbed Tubes Using Inverse Problem Techniques

The improved heat dissipation observed in 3D micro-ribbed tubes is primarily influenced by the intricate interplay of multiple structural parameters. Nevertheless, research into the coupling mechanisms of these multi-structural parameters remains constrained by the absence of effective methodology in numerical solutions. In the present work, a new 3D micro-rib structure based on discrete adjoint method is established. Firstly, the research examines the interplay of different parameters (such as arrangement, relative roughness height, angle of attack, and circumferential rows) on the thermo-hydraulic performance. It is noted that the heat transfer efficiency is notably impacted by the relative roughness height. And the arrangement methodology dictates the optimal positioning for heat transfer efficiency. An increase in the number of circumferential rows enhances fluid mixing, while the angle of attack plays a crucial role in the formation of longitudinal vortices. Secondly, the coupling optimization technique is employed to obtain the optimal structure featuring non-uniform relative roughness height by the developed numerical solution. Overall, in comparison to the smooth tube, the optimized ribbed tube exhibits a remarkable 64.9% enhancement in performance evaluation criteria. Finally, a notable enhancement of 10.65–22.78% is observed when comparing with the prevailing micro-rib structures.

Experimental and machine learning study on the influence of nanoparticle size and pulsating flow on heat transfer performance in nanofluid-jet impingement cooling

Maximizing heat transfer efficiency is crucial for enhancing performance and durability in diverse engineering applications, including fuel cells, EV batteries, and solar PV/T systems, thereby advancing sustainable energy innovation. This study investigates thermal dissipation from a simulated heat sink aligned with a PV cell’s back plate via jet impingement cooling. Specifically, it examines the impacts of pulsatile cooling and nanoparticle size in hybrid nanofluids, comprising combinations of Al2O3 and MWCNT in water, with varied nanofluid volume fraction (0.05 vol% ≤ ɸ ≤ 0.3 vol%) and flow Reynolds number (15000 < Re < 40000). Key findings reveal significant influences of nanoparticle size, nanofluid concentration, and pulsating flow on heat transfer performance. Notably, sample D demonstrated the highest heat transfer enhancement, achieving approximately 52.94 % and 79.06 % improvement in continuous and pulsating jet cooling compared to de-ionized water under continuous jet cooling. Machine learning classifiers were employed to identify critical thermal performance parameters, with Reynolds number identified as the most significant factor influencing heat transfer. Random Forest and Gradient Boosting classifiers showed notable accuracy in predicting Nu, emphasizing the role of machine learning techniques in optimizing thermal management strategies for improved heat dissipation from solar PV cell backplates.

Numerical Study on Heat Transfer Efficiency and Inter-Layer Stress of Microchannel Heat Sinks with Different Geometries

As electronics become more powerful and compact, laminated microchannel heat sinks (MCHSs) are essential for handling high heat flux. This study aims to optimize the MCHS design for improved heat dissipation and structural strength. An orthogonal experiment was established with the average surface temperature of the heat source as the evaluation metric, and the optimal structure was determined through simulation. Finally, cooling uniformity, fluidity, and performance evaluation criterion (PEC) analyses were carried out on the optimal structure. It was determined that the optimal combination was the triangular cavity microchannel (MCTC), with a microchannel width of 0.5 mm, a microchannel distribution density of 60%, and the presence of surface undulation on the microchannels. The result shows that the optimal structure’s peak inter-layer stress is just 34.8% of its longitudinal tensile strength. Compared to the traditional parallel straight microchannel (MCPS), this structure boasts an 8.6 K decrease in the average surface temperature and a temperature variation along specific paths that is only 9.9% of that in traditional designs. Moreover, the optimal design cuts the velocity loss at the microchannel entrance from 75% to 59%. Thus, this research successfully develops an effective optimization strategy for MCHSs.

New Tunable LED With Improved Heat Dissipation on Chip-on-Board

New Tunable LED With Improved Heat Dissipation on Chip-on-Board

Finite Element Analysis of LED Heat Dissipation Performance Based on Graphene Composites

Abstract With the gradual development of integrated circuits to thin, high-performance and versatile of electronic products is becoming more and more powerful, and its integration and assembly density continue to improve, which will lead to the increase of its working power consumption and heat. If not timely treatment of heat dissipation problems, which will lead to heat concentration in the diode PN junction, it will reduce the service life of LED lights, and in severe cases, it will even burn the LED device. Therefore, it is crucial to improve heat dissipation efficiency of LED and reduce the junction temperature of chip. An LED structure with aluminum material and an LED structure with graphene material are analyzed by finite element method to study the heat dissipation efficiency of the graphene material. The results reveal that the heat dissipation effect of high conductivity graphene composites provides a convenient evaluation method for the subsequent use of the new materials. The research in this paper shows that the software simulation method can effectively analyze the thermal conductivity of practical engineering applications.

Exploring Biomimetic Heat Pipes for Space Radiator Enhancement

This study investigates biomimetic heat pipes for space radiator applications, utilizing nature-inspired structures to potentially enhance heat transfer efficiency. The research addresses the imperative for improved heat dissipation mechanisms in nuclear space systems, crucial for effective thermal management. Heat pipes are passive heat transfer devices widely adopted for thermal control. The study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of a biomimetic heat pipe design in comparison to a traditional design while also validating the fabrication process through industry-made heat pipe comparisons. Innovative hot oil bath testing methods are employed to fabricate and test both heat pipe types, utilizing comprehensive thermal analysis, physical experiments, and validation techniques to assess heat transfer capabilities. Tests span varying temperature levels to analyze heat pipe behavior and performance. Findings suggest the potential for enhanced heat dissipation along the length of the biomimetic heat pipe, hinting at the biomimetic structure’s role in improving heat transfer. This study underscores the promise of biomimetic design principles and their potential for advancing heat pipe technology. Recommendations for further exploration include alternative materials, optimized testing procedures, and refined fabrication processes.

A 220 GHz GaN‐based monolithic integrated frequency doubler delivering over 0.25 W output power

AbstractA 220 GHz GaN‐based monolithic integrated frequency doubler with high continuous‐wave output power has been developed. The doubler achieves improved heat dissipation by establishing the terahertz (THz) monolithic integrated circuit topology with GaN Schottky barrier diodes integrated on a high thermal conductivity SiC substrate. It features six anodes to enhance the power‐handling capabilities. A refractory Schottky metal stack is adopted for better thermal stability. The doubler realizes satisfactory performance by introducing the suspended microstrip and an all‐in‐one output structure. For verification, a prototype of the proposed frequency doubler was fabricated and tested. Measured results show that the proposed doubler produces a continuous‐wave output power of 255 mW at 220 GHz with an efficiency of 14.6%, exhibiting excellent potential for powerful THz sources.

Influence of cryogenic CO2 on wood-plastic composite (WPC) turning-performance characteristics: a comparison with dry machining

ABSTRACT Wood plastic composite (WPC) is an environmentally friendly wood material widely used to manufacture wood products for indoor and outdoor use. In traditional WPC cutting, a built-up edge is easily generated in the cutting zone, which negatively affects the machined surface quality. Cryogenic cutting technology can effectively suppress the formation of built-up edges in the cutting zone and improve machining quality. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the cryogenic cutting properties of WPC. Cryogenic turning tests and dry turning tests were carried out on WPC, and cutting temperature, cutting force, and surface roughness were compared and analyzed. The results showed that cryogenic CO 2 airflow improved heat dissipation in the cutting zone and effectively reduced the temperature. Under the effect of cryogenic CO 2 , the strength of WPC increased, resulting in a higher cutting force for cryogenic turning than that for dry turning. Cryogenic cutting of WPC resulted in a smoother surface than dry cutting. During the WPC cryogenic turning process, increasing cutting depth and feed rate causes an increase in cutting temperature, cutting force and surface roughness. Increasing cutting speed also cause an increase in cutting temperature, but the reduction in cutting forces and surface roughness is beneficial. In summary, cryogenic cutting of WPC can achieve better surface quality than dry machining, and these results can contribute to practical guidelines for industrial applications.

Performance improvement of a U-tube heat exchanger based hydrogen storage reactor by phase change materials

Solid-state hydrogen storage technology using metal hydrides as carriers has great application prospects. This study aims to optimize the heat transfer resistance and absorption kinetics issues encountered in practical applications of LaNi5-H2 storage materials in storage reactors. A mathematical model for the hydrogen absorption process in the reactors based on U-tube and straight-tube heat exchangers was built, and the advantages of U-tube structure and the flow characteristics of the heat transfer fluid on its heat transfer and absorption performance were analyzed. To further enhance the U-tube based reactor's performance, phase change materials (PCM) were subsequently introduced as an auxiliary heat transfer medium, while the amount of PCM and the thermal conductivity of the reaction bed were optimized. The results showed that the appropriate PCM dosage could overcome the inherent defects of the U-tube heat exchanger and significantly improve heat dissipation and reaction rates of the reactor, and the H2 absorption completion time was shortened by 1.4 times. In addition, the increased thermal conductivity of reaction beds is equally important for the enhancement of heat transfer and absorption rate. Nevertheless, further increase of PCM's thermal conductivity has a limited effect on the improvement of the performance.

Synergistic performance enhancement of lead-acid battery packs at low- and high-temperature conditions using flexible phase change material sheets

Thermal management of lead-acid batteries includes heat dissipation at high-temperature conditions (similar to other batteries) and thermal insulation at low-temperature conditions due to significant performance deterioration. To address this trader-off, this work proposes a thermal management solution based on flexible phase change materials (PCMs) with moderate thermal conductivity and other favourable properties including high specific heat capacity and high latent heat. A novel type of flexible PCM sheets is prepared with paraffin, olefin block copolymers (OBC) and expanded graphite using the co-melting method. The flexible PCM sheets are attached to a common type of lead-acid battery packs (12 Ah, dimensions of 151 × 98 × 97 mm) and thermal management performance is experimentally investigated at –10 °C and 40 °C as low- and high-temperature conditions, respectively, along with 25 °C as a baseline case for comparison purposes. Thermal properties of the battery packs such as temperature regulation and electric properties including charge/discharge capacities and rates are studied synchronously based on a standard high-performance battery detection facility. The results indicate that at –10 °C condition, the PCM sheet enhances thermal insulation of the battery pack and significantly promotes the service temperature during the charging processes. Compared with a benchmark pack attached with an encapsulated sheet, the charge and discharge capacities of the PCM-attached pack are improved by 3.7% and 5.9%, respectively. At 40 °C condition, phase transition of the PCM sheet restrains the temperature rise of the battery pack, with a maximum temperature decrease of 4.2 °C during the charging processes relative to the benchmark pack, and the temperature of the PCM-attached pack is maintained below 45 °C across 60% of the overall charge period. The overcharge and overdischarge have also been alleviated by 3.2% and 2.8%, respectively, and thus the running stability and service lifespan can be improved. The proposed PCM sheets with preferable thermal properties demonstrate potential to promote performance of lead-acid battery packs and such components are also expected to improve heat dissipation and thermal insulation in similar applications including building energy saving, thermal management of electronic chips and thermal regulation of electronic devices.

A Y-Type Air-Cooled Battery Thermal Management System with a Short Airflow Path for Temperature Uniformity

A Y-type air-cooled structure has been proposed to improve the heat dissipation efficiency and temperature uniformity of battery thermal management systems (BTMSs) by reducing the flow path of air. By combining computational fluid dynamics (CFD) methods, the influence of the depths of the distribution and convergence plenums on the airflow velocity through battery cells was analyzed to improve heat dissipation efficiency. Adjusting the width of the first and ninth cooling channels can change the air velocity of these two channels, thereby improving the temperature uniformity of the BTMS. Further discussion was conducted regarding the influences of inlet and outlet depths. When the inlet width and outlet width were 20 mm, the maximum temperature and maximum temperature difference of the Y-type BTMS were 39.84 °C and 0.066 °C at a discharge rate of 2.5 °C, respectively; these temperatures were 1.537 °C (3.68%) and 0.059 °C (47.2%) lower than those of the T-type model. Meanwhile, the energy consumption of the sample also decreased by 13.1%. The results indicate that the heat dissipation performance of the proposed Y-type BTMS was improved, achieving excellent temperature uniformity, and the energy consumption was also reduced.

Electrohydrodynamic characteristics in parallel-fin channels and enhanced heat transfer performance of an ionic wind heat sink

High heat flux density may lead to a decline in the performance of highly integrated electronic components, which presents a major challenge to thermal management strategies. This work developed ionic wind heat sinks with parallel-fin channels for cooling high-power chips. The study examined the effects of intake air velocity, number of electrodes, and discharge spacing on the distribution of ionic wind flow and the improved heat transfer performance of the ionic wind heat sink. The findings suggest that the ionic wind heat sink with wire electrodes perpendicular to the fin channels can withstand higher operating voltages and generate more reliable corona discharges. The improved heat transfer capabilities are achieved with reduced inlet air velocity. The heat transfer enhancement factor (HTEF) of the ionic wind heat sink decreases as the discharge spacing increases, leading to a reduction in the peak value of the body force. The heat transfer capacity declines as the number of wire electrodes increases, because marginal effects lessen disruption to the thermal boundary layer. An effective airflow is achieved when wire electrodes are positioned upstream of the heat sink and run parallel to the fins, ensuring a steady and efficient cooling process. The design effectively disrupts the thermal boundary layer, reducing momentum loss in the flow and increasing the HTEF value by 21.2%. This improvement significantly enhances the heat dissipation capacity. The structurally optimized heat sink demonstrates excellent overall performance and is a viable option for improving heat dissipation in electronic devices.

Design and performance assessment of a triply-periodic-minimal-surface structures-enhanced gallium heat sink for high heat flux dissipation: A numerical study

This study numerically investigates a phase-change material heat sink using gallium and Primitive Triply Periodic Minimal Surface (TPMS) cells structure as in-fill for applications requiring high heat-flux dissipation, e.g., electronics. Initially, we used only gallium without thermal conductivity enhancers, relying solely on buoyancy-driven circulations of melted gallium for the convective cooling of a hot sink base. However, this study aims to surpass gallium’s innate heat-dissipation capability. Therefore, the sink is enhanced with a high conductivity Primitive TPMS cells structure. Hybridization of conduction and convection heat dissipation enhancements is accomplished by using only one layer of the TPMS cells installed at the hot sink base. Comparison with the full TPMS structure filling option is made. In the full TPMS structure filling option, the sink relies mainly on conduction through the TPMS structure’s body and less on natural convection. However, equipping the sink with TPMS structures reduces the overall latent heat storage capacity. Therefore, additional gallium is added to the sink to match the overall gallium content in the baseline case without TPMS structures. Furthermore, the effect of the boundary conditions applied at the wall is explored. The results show considerable improvements in heat dissipation and peak temperatures with the TPMS cells, where by the time 100 s (about 20 s post complete melting) peak temperatures are about 13 percent lower than in the case without TPMS structures. Furthermore, the full structure filling option demonstrates superior performance over the partially filled ones, highlighting the importance of conduction through TPMS cells over convection in the free gallium space. Unlike the partial filling option, conduction in the full filling option has a continuous favorable impact on heat dissipation from the onset of the heating process.

Experimental Study and Performance Analysis of Thermoelectric Cooler Using Solar Photovoltaic Energy

Thermoelectric coolers need electrical energy to create temperature differences between the hot and cold sides; however, photovoltaic systems immediately convert solar radiation into electrical energy. The study is a combined (PV-TEC)—experimental study on a thermoelectric cooler operating by the Peltier effect to analyze and develop the TEC. One TEC was used, and its dimensions were (40*40*3.4) mm. The current required by the TEC is 6A and 12V DC. The thermoelectric cooler is electrically powered by a solar system consisting of two 660W solar panels, a solar charger and two 12V batteries. The results revealed a relationship between the coefficient of performance and the input energy, as the COP showed an increase as the input energy decreased, which is an essential factor for the cooling process. The temperature difference, which was the difference between ambient and cold temperatures, is related to the COP. The COP rises as the temperature difference decreases until it becomes stable. Moreover, the consumption current is an important factor in electronic devices, so the study focused on demonstrating the effect of the cold side temperature on the current, and an empirical equation was found between them. It has been found that a decrease in the temperature of the cold side leads to a sharp reduction in the consumption current until it stabilizes. The maximum coefficient of performance was 3.7436, obtained at the current 1.4 and cold side temperature of zero degrees centigrade. This high value of the coefficient of performance resulted from using curved fins to improve heat dissipation from the hot side.