Improved Water Sources Research Articles

World emissions and economic growth: application of non-parametric methods

The Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesises an inverse U-shaped relationship between a measure of environmental pollution and per capita income levels. In this study, we apply non-parametric estimation of local polynomial regression (local quadratic fitting) to allow more flexibility in local estimation. This study uses a larger and globally representative sample of many local and global pollutants and natural resources including Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) emission, CO2 emission, CO2 damage, energy use, energy depletion, mineral depletion, improved water source, PM10, particulate emission damage, forest area and net forest depletion. Copyright © 2009 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

Poverty and socio-economic consequences of Buruli ulcer (Mycobacterium ulcerans) in the Ga West District of Ghana

The paper examines Buruli ulcer and its poverty and socio-economic ramifications in the Ga West District of Ghana. Although the disease has received public health attention, its impact on individuals, families and communities has not been given critical attention. The study found Buruli ulcer to be associated with deprived areas where poor socio-economic and infrastructural conditions are manifested in the lack of employable skills and low incomes. Also associated with the disease are those activities that interfere with the environment and make it a habitat for disease causing organisms. The study recommends good environmental management, improved water sources, early detection and treatment, and education, as the best measures to reduce morbidity and costs in the management of the disease.

Environmental sustainability and water availability: Analyses of the scarcity and improvement opportunities in the Usangu plain, Tanzania

Environmental sustainability is one among the eight United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for sustainable development. As a measure of this goal, proportion of people with sustainable access to improved water source is an indicator of progress towards its achievement by the year 2015. This study assessed the emerging scarcity of water and analyzed opportunities for improvement in six rural villages of the Usangu plain in south-western Tanzania. A combination of the literature survey, participatory rural appraisal, formal survey, participant observations and biophysical data collection were research tools used. A problem of water shortage for domestic use exists and is increasing in the Usangu plain. In the area of study, only 13% of the households had full time access to improved sources of water. This proportion is very low, compared to national average of 65.7% in 1999, and the national target to be achieved is 82.1% by year 2015. Environmental change, manifested by increasing drought events, decline of water levels in underground aquifers, streams, rivers and springs, and observed increased losses through runoff floods are the major causes of emerging shortages of the water. Use of techniques that increase conservation and infiltration of the rainwater in the watershed areas of the major sources would enhance the recharge of underground aquifers and reduce floods. Technologies and skills, that would enable local people to directly harvest rainwater and tap underground water and manage these sources effectively, at household or sub-village community levels, seem to be sustainable solutions to the scarcity of safe drinking water supply in this semi-arid environment, where there is increasing rainfall amount and pattern variability.

Demand and supply of improved water in the Ghanaian Volta Basin

Growing efforts are undertaken at the local, national, and international level to improve water supply in developing countries and thereby help people to satisfy their basic water needs. This study aims at an evaluation of households’ actual access to and use of improved water sources in rural communities in the Ghanaian Volta basin. A statistical analysis of a household survey conducted in the Volta Basin helps to demonstrate that access to improved water does not automatically translate into use of it for all households. Our analysis shows that 43 per cent of those households that had access to an improved source still use unsafe water as their main domestic water source. Relative distance to improved and unimproved sources, the pricing system established locally, and quality perceptions all are likely to influence household water source choices.

Beyond the Millennium Development Goals: Public health challenges in water and sanitation

Over 1 billion people lack access to improved water sources and 2.6 billion lack access to appropriate sanitation, greatly contributing to the global burden of disease. The international community has committed to reducing by half the proportion of the world's population lacking access to water and sanitation as a part of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). However, the disease burden due to poor access, is borne primarily by the poorest countries and the poorest people within them. Simply reducing the proportion of people without adequate access will not automatically result in proportional reductions in the related disease burden. The public health challenge inherent in meeting the MDG targets is ensuring that improvements result in access to water and sanitation for the critical at-risk populations. Innovative approaches are required to ensure the availability of low-cost, simple, and locally acceptable water and sanitation interventions and integrating these approaches into existing social institutions, such as schools, markets, and health facilities.

Use of structural equation modeling to examine the relationships between growth, trade and the environment in developing countries

According to the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis, environmental degradation increases in the early stages of growth, but it eventually decreases as income exceeds a threshold level. It is thus often argued that if international trade increases incomes then it can also have a positive impact on environmental quality. So far, these hypotheses have been widely empirically tested for the developed countries. However, it is still uncertain whether positive effects of international trade on growth and on the environment may also hold in developing countries. One of the major difficulties in testing these relations in developing countries is the poor quality of environment related data. In this analysis this problem is reduced by constructing a structural equation model (SEM) with three latent variables defined as environment quality, health care and structural changes. It is further assumed that these latent variables are correlated with each other and are described by their available outcomes, access to an improved water source, health-adjusted life expectancy, fertilizer use intensity, industrial carbon dioxide emissions etc., and indicators, structure of international trade by region and by commodity group, amount of international aid received by the country, foreign direct investment, income per capita etc. Using LISREL software, these structural relationships are combined into one comprehensive model. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd and ERP Environment.

Water sources are associated with childhood diarrhoea prevalence in rural east-central Mali.

Water supply improvements generally reduce the incidence of diarrhoea. However, populations with limited access to a safe water supply may continue to draw water from unimproved sources, thereby increasing their risk of diarrhoea. Furthermore, young children who are not breastfed may be even more susceptible to water-borne diarrhoeal pathogens. Our study explored the interactive protective effects against diarrhoea of exclusively using improved water sources and breastfeeding among children in rural Mali. Interviews were conducted with parents or guardians of children under 7 years of age in seven villages with access to a variety of water supplies. Water sources used, breastfeeding status, demographics and recent diarrhoea symptoms were determined for 1117 children. The cross-sectional findings were used to compare diarrhoea prevalence among exclusive and non-exclusive users of improved water sources. Variation in prevalence by age and exclusive breastfeeding status was evaluated using chi-square and multivariate analyses. Children whose water was drawn exclusively from wells had a significantly lower prevalence of diarrhoea as compared with children whose water was drawn from a spring or stream (5.9% vs. 8.7%; P=0.04). The exclusive use of improved water sources had no impact on diarrhoea prevalence among children who were exclusively breastfed. Similarly, the strongest protective effect was observed among children who were not exclusively breastfed. Our results indicate that using surface water as a primary or secondary water source exposes children to greater risk of diarrhoeal disease than using only improved sources such as wells. It is particularly beneficial for young children who are not exclusively breastfed to be supplied with water drawn from improved sources.

Providing clean water, keeping water clean: an integrated approach

Millions of people, most of whom are children in developing countries, die of basic hygiene-related diseases every year. Interventions in hygiene, sanitation and water supply have been shown to control disease burden. Universal access to improved water sources and basic sanitation remains elusive but is an important long-term goal. Studies have shown that improving the microbiological quality of household water by on-site or point-of-use treatment and safe storage in improved vessels reduces diarrhoeal and other waterborne diseases in communities and households of developing and developed countries. The extent to which improving drinking water quality at the household level reduces diarrhoeal disease probably depends on a variety of technology-related and site-specific environmental and demographic factors that require further investigation, characterisation and analyses.

The impact of water supplies and sanitation on growth in Chinese children.

In many developing countries, improvement in water supplies has not been supplemented by improvement in sanitation facilities. Moreover, health education is rarely included in environmental hygiene programmes. Community health workers need to know if water supplies and sanitation have independent or complementary effects on health. This study analysed the weight data of 1,045 Chinese children aged 60 months or below. Regression models with interaction terms were tested against a model with main effects only. There was no evidence of interaction between water supplies and sanitation measures. The results show that water supplies and toilet facilities had independent associations with growth. Improved water source (P = 0.01) and flush-toilet (P = 0.06) were found positively associated with the children's weight. Presence of excreta in the home had a negative, but not statistically significant, association with weight.

The rationality factor: Choosing water sources according to water uses

Rural water-supply projects often seem to base their technological interventions on the belief that, once installed, the improved water sources will be used to the exclusion of all others. But users perceive their traditional water sources to be just as good — if not better. Now project designers are beginning to ask them why.

Desalting Saline Ground Water for Irrigation: A Case Study, Buckeye Area, Arizona

A study was made of an irrigated area in Arizona to evaluate costs and benefits associated with desalting saline ground water from seven wells as an improved water source for irrigation. Both multistage flash distillation (MSF) and electrodialysis (ED) processes were evaluated. The study area involved 1376 acres near Buckeye, Arizona. Well water quality varied from 1580 to 4600 ppm. Irrigation water qualities of 400, 900, and 1500 ppm are developed by the two processes. Adaptable cropping patterns are selected for maximum returns. A total of six alternative plans are compared. Direct, indirect, and public benefits for the projected year of 1990 are generated by shifts to higher value crops, intensive double cropping, increased crop yields, reduced water use, reduced fertilizer costs, reduced irrigation labor, and from increased flow of farm products. Costs are based on such features as the desalting facilities, well water collection system, product storage reservoir, conveyance and distribution system, brine disposal system, blending facilities (MSF only), gypsum addition system (ED only), and water treatment facilities. Benefit‐cost ratios increased with improved water quality. Investment costs per acre were found to be high. The most favorable benefit‐cost ratio involved use of the ED process at a water quality level of 400 ppm.