Impoverished Groups Research Articles

Who Is Still Travelling by Public Transport during COVID-19? Socioeconomic Factors Explaining Travel Behaviour in Stockholm Based on Smart Card Data

The COVID-19 pandemic has changed travel behaviour and reduced the use of public transport throughout the world, but the reduction has not been uniform. In this study we analyse the propensity to stop traveling by public transport during COVID-19 for the holders of 1.8 million smart cards in Stockholm, Sweden, for the spring and autumn of 2020. We suggest two models for explaining the change in travel pattern, linking socioeconomic data per area and travel data with the probability to stop traveling. The first model analyses the impact of the socioeconomic factors: age; income; education level; gender; housing type; population density; country of origin; and employment level. The results show that decreases in public transport use are linked to areas with a population of high socioeconomic status (e.g. income levels, owned houses and high employment levels). The second model groups the investigated areas into five distinct clusters based on the socioeconomic data: Rural, Working Class, Impoverished, Garden Suburbs and Central. During spring, residents in the Rural group were most likely to continue traveling, followed by the Impoverished, Working Class, Garden Suburbs and Central. During fall the differences between the groups diminished, and especially the Impoverished group reduced their public transport use to a similar level as the Garden Suburbs group. The results show that socioeconomic status affect the change in behaviour during the pandemic and that exposure to the virus is determined by citizens’ socioeconomic class. Furthermore, the results can guide policy into tailoring public transport supply to where the need is, instead of assuming that e.g. crowding is equally distributed within the public transport system in the event of a pandemic.

Effects of indoor pollution on acute respiratory infections among under-five children in India: Evidence from a nationally representative population-based study.

ObjectiveAcute respiratory infections (ARI) are the leading causes of neonatal and child mortality. Despite several national efforts to reduce the incidence of mortality among children, India is one of the largest contributors to under-five mortality in the world. In this study, we examined the effects of indoor pollution on ARI among under-five children in India.MethodsA cross-sectional study was carried using nationally representative data from the 2015–2016 National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4). This study is based on 247,743 living children under the age of five years. Bivariate and multivariate analyses were performed to assess the impact of indoor air pollution on children's ARI.ResultsAlmost two-thirds of households (65.2%) used biomass fuels for cooking, 54.9% of households had a separate kitchen, and 47.2% of households had a smoker. About 2.7% of children suffered from ARI in the past two weeks preceding the survey. The use of biomass fuels (OR [odds ratio]: 1.10, 95% CI: 1.01–1.20), households having no separate kitchen (OR: 1.22, 95% CI: 1.14–1.30), and smoking behavior of household members (OR: 1.06, 95% CI: 1.00–1.12) were associated with greater risk of ARI among under-five children even after adjusting for age of child, sex of child, birth order, maternal age, maternal education, caste, religion, wealth quintile, any HH members suffer from tuberculosis (TB), and household crowding. Furthermore, the results revealed that the combined effects of biomass fuels and households without separate kitchen increased the likelihood of children's ARI by 36% (Adjusted OR: 1.35, 95% CI: 1.21–1.51).ConclusionThe findings of this study suggest policy interventions to reduce the exposure of indoor air pollution, particularly among the impoverished groups. The government should ensure cleaner fuels for cooking, such as LPG and electricity, to minimize the risk of respiratory diseases among children.

Religion, Culture and the Process of Marginalization

Religion is a force under which we understand the framework of social exclusion or integration across the world. The growing impact of religion on peoples' lives globally has seen a massive resurgence of newly imposed guidelines, rules, and regulations in societies. It has been a great impact on social conditioning, both demographically and psychographically. For an increasing majority of the global population, religion has powerfully anchored forms of identity, meaning, community, and purpose. And the same religion, through cultural roots, has created newer forms of marginalization across the societies and nations. All over the world nowadays people are discussing the problems of marginalized groups - their social, ethnic, economic, and cultural problems. Marginality with all aspects is indeed a major problem to be reckoned with in the world. By and large, most of the marginalized groups constitute minorities religious, ethnic, linguistic, or otherwise- in different countries. There are sub-cultures in mainstream cultures or religions. Invariably they are impoverished people constituting o minority groups. They suffer from economic, social or political impoverishment and find themselves estranged from this mainstream. Their marginality may vary in degree, extent or intensity. Most countries and cultures have empowered groups at one pole and impoverished groups at the other and between the two, there are graded levels of power and poverty. This paper discusses the correlation between religion, culture, and the process of marginalization.

The Better Future International’s family care model in Tanzania: Creating social capital as a means to empowerment in social work practice

This article describes the impact on social services of an innovative model of family care in Moshi, Tanzania, aimed at orphaned children and youth who are affected by HIV/AIDS and their caregivers. We explore three questions: Is social capital created during the provision of social work services? If so, what aspects of the model are responsible for it? How does this social capital influence the participants’ educational/occupational aspirations and vision of the future? This qualitative study is based on a case analysis of eight adolescents and their caregivers. Data were collected from in-depth interviews. The unique aspects of a family-oriented, holistic, social service model focused on empowerment and future orientation-generated bridging, bonding, and linking social capital. Youth with more social capital appeared to have clearer visions of their future path. Implications for community-based social work practice serving marginalized and impoverished groups are presented.

Morphological Profiling of Schizophrenia: Cluster Analysis of MRI-Based Cortical Thickness Data

The diagnosis of schizophrenia is thought to embrace several distinct subgroups. The manifold entities in a single clinical patient group increase the variance of biological measures, deflate the group-level estimates of causal factors, and mask the presence of treatment effects. However, reliable neurobiological boundaries to differentiate these subgroups remain elusive. Since cortical thinning is a well-established feature in schizophrenia, we investigated if individuals (patients and healthy controls) with similar patterns of regional cortical thickness form naturally occurring morphological subtypes. K-means algorithm clustering was applied to regional cortical thickness values obtained from 256 structural MRI scans (179 patients with schizophrenia and 77 healthy controls [HCs]). GAP statistics revealed three clusters with distinct regional thickness patterns. The specific patterns of cortical thinning, clinical characteristics, and cognitive function of each clustered subgroup were assessed. The three clusters based on thickness patterns comprised of a morphologically impoverished subgroup (25% patients, 1% HCs), an intermediate subgroup (47% patients, 46% HCs), and an intact subgroup (28% patients, 53% HCs). The differences of clinical features among three clusters pertained to age-of-onset, N-back performance, duration exposure to treatment, total burden of positive symptoms, and severity of delusions. Particularly, the morphologically impoverished group had deficits in N-back performance and less severe positive symptom burden. The data-driven neuroimaging approach illustrates the occurrence of morphologically separable subgroups in schizophrenia, with distinct clinical characteristics. We infer that the anatomical heterogeneity of schizophrenia arises from both pathological deviance and physiological variance. We advocate using MRI-guided stratification for clinical trials as well as case–control investigations in schizophrenia.

The position of impoverished citizens in a region’s social structure (based on material from Orel Province)

This article presents the results of the authors’ research, conducted in one of Russia’s more significant agricultural regions – Orel Province. The study was based on an integrative approach, which involves a combination of objective and subjective criteria and sub-criteria for inclusion into the impoverished strata. The sample’s representativeness (n=1154) is guaranteed by age, gender, area of employment and type of settlement, with margin of error for the population sample amounting to no more than 2.3%. The method for interpreting the results of the study is based on dividing the community into impoverished and non-impoverished strata, as it was done for analyzing poverty and inequality in modern Russia in a report of the same name by the Institute of Sociology of the RAS. Such an interpretive approach allowed for the authors to identify considerable discrepancies in the qualitative assessments and quantitative characteristics of the phenomenon of poverty by the highlighted strata consisting of the impoverished and non-impoverished. The research results allowed for isolating the primary reasons leading to poverty, based on the evaluations of both the impoverished and the non-impoverished. The authors figured out that, when members of the population identify their position in the social structure of the region, the non-impoverished tend to underestimate their status in comparison to the objective values of poverty criteria, while the impoverished tend to over-estimate their social standing. Comparing the impoverished and non-impoverished based on social-professional criteria confirmed one of the clauses of the social stratification theory, the broad interpretation of which suggests a direct correlation between one’s education level and belonging to non-impoverished groups of the population. The general conclusion to the study suggests that the impoverished groups of Orel Province’s population lead less fulfilled lives when compared to the non-impoverished, especially when it comes to commercialized forms of recreation, as well as that the former find themselves in a state of deprivation, despite their own desire to position themselves outside of the poverty zone. The authors draw the conclusion that, given a situation when poverty is a global issue, with it becoming a target index for an increasing amount of countries and regions in the last few years, singling out poverty should become a priority for Russian social policy, both on a federal and regional level.

Inequalities in the benefits of national health insurance on financial protection from out-of-pocket payments and access to health services: cross-sectional evidence from Ghana.

A central pillar of universal health coverage (UHC) is to achieve financial protection from catastrophic health expenditure. There are concerns, however, that national health insurance programmes with premiums may not benefit impoverished groups. In 2003, Ghana became the first sub-Saharan African country to introduce a National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS) with progressively structured premium charges. In this study, we test the impact of being insured on utilization and financial risk protection compared with no enrolment, using the 2012–13 Ghana Living Standards Survey (n = 72 372). Consistent with previous studies, we observed that participating in health insurance significantly decreased the probability of unmet medical needs by 15 percentage points (p.p.) and that of incurring catastrophic out-of-pocket (OOP) health payments by 7 p.p. relative to no enrolment in the NHIS. Households living outside a 1-h radius to the nearest hospital had lower reductions in financial risk from excess OOP medical spending relative to households living closer (−5 p.p. vs −9 p.p.). We also find evidence that in Ghana, the scheme was highly pro-poor. Once insured, the poorest 40% of households experienced significantly larger improvements in medical utilization (18 p.p. vs. 8 p.p.) and substantively larger reductions in catastrophic OOP health expenditure (−10 p.p. vs. −6 p.p.) compared with that of the richest households. However, health insurance did not benefit vulnerable persons equally from financial risk. Once insured, poor, low-educated and self-employed households living far from hospitals had significantly lower reductions in catastrophic OOP medical spending compared with their counterparts living closer. Taken together, we show that enrolment in the NHIS is associated with improved financial protection but less so among geographically remote vulnerable groups. Efforts to boost not just insurance uptake but also health service delivery may be needed as a supplement for insurance schemes to accelerate progress towards UHC.

Perfil de Homens Autores de Violência Contra a Mulher: Uma Análise Documental

Objetivou-se, neste estudo, analisar o perfil de homens autores de violência doméstica, a fim de contribuir com estratégias de enfrentamento e de prevenção. Trata-se de uma pesquisa qualitativa de base documental realizada a partir de fichas de atendimento do núcleo pesquisado que se encontra localizado em uma capital da região nordeste do Brasil, reconhecida pelos seus altos índices de violência contra a mulher. Foram analisadas as fichas de 241 homens, abarcando o período de setembro de 2012 a setembro de 2017. Os dados foram submetidos à análise de conteúdo. Os principais resultados corroboram com estudos encontrados na literatura, indicando que, em sua maioria, os homens possuíam vínculo com a agredida, pertenciam a estratos mais pauperizados e praticaram violência física. Além disso, os resultados apontam que o perfil encontrado remete à uma classe estruturalmente criminalizável, demonstrando a seletividade criminal existente em nossa sociedade, a qual incide sobre o estado das relações de poder entre as classes sociais. Os resultados também apontaram aspectos relacionados à culpabilização/responsabilização da mulher pela violência sofrida.

INCOME TARGETS AND POVERTY OF RUBBER SMALLHOLDERS IN FOUR STATES OF MALAYSIA

Both rubber and oil have contributed significantly to Malaysia’s revenues and job creations especially for those in the rural areas. Malaysia now stands at third after Thailand and Indonesia in natural rubber production. However, the country’s natural rubber productivity began to decline since late 2011 and would probably deteriorate through 2016 as consumption growth weakens in China - the largest importer, curbing prices of the raw material used in everything from tyre to medical gloves and condoms. The declining rubber price has moved the smallholders who mostly live in rural areas into serious poverty. This has led the smallholders, who sustain latex production, to suffer and find alternative jobs to sustain. This has dampened the government’s intention to ensure smallholders earn at least RM2,500 per month by 2015 and further to RM4,000 by 2020. The key objectives of this paper are to determine the poverty level, whether this policy has been met, and the impact of the reducing price of the commodity on the smallholders’ spending patterns. The study finds a large proportion of this group fall into the hardcore poverty category, which deviates very much from the national poverty levels pronounced by the government. More needs to be done to assist this impoverished group.

INCOME TARGETS AND POVERTY OF RUBBER SMALLHOLDERS IN FOUR STATES OF MALAYSIA

Both rubber and oil have contributed significantly to Malaysia’s revenues and job creations especially for those in the rural areas. Malaysia now stands at third after Thailand and Indonesia in natural rubber production. However, the country’s natural rubber productivity began to decline since late 2011 and would probably deteriorate through 2016 as consumption growth weakens in China - the largest importer, curbing prices of the raw material used in everything from tyre to medical gloves and condoms. The declining rubber price has moved the smallholders who mostly live in rural areas into serious poverty. This has led the smallholders, who sustain latex production, to suffer and find alternative jobs to sustain. This has dampened the government’s intention to ensure smallholders earn at least RM2,500 per month by 2015 and further to RM4,000 by 2020. The key objectives of this paper are to determine the poverty level, whether this policy has been met, and the impact of the reducing price of the commodity on the smallholders’ spending patterns. The study finds a large proportion of this group fall into the hardcore poverty category, which deviates very much from the national poverty levels pronounced by the government. More needs to be done to assist this impoverished group.

The growing disconnect between food prices and wages in Europe: cross-national analysis of food deprivation and welfare regimes in twenty-one EU countries, 2004-2012.

Food insecurity has been rising across Europe following the Great Recession, but to varying degrees across countries and over time. The reasons for this increase are not well understood, nor are what factors might protect people's access to food. Here we test the hypothesis that an emerging gap between food prices and wages can explain increases in reported inability to afford protein-rich foods and whether welfare regimes can mitigate its impact. We collected data in twenty-one countries from 2004 to 2012 using two databases: (i) on food prices and deprivation related to food (denoted by reported inability to afford to eat meat, chicken, fish or a vegetarian equivalent every second day) from EuroStat 2015 edition; and (ii) on wages from the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 2015 edition. After adjusting for macroeconomic factors, we found that each 1 % rise in the price of food over and above wages was associated with greater self-reported food deprivation (β=0·060, 95 % CI 0·030, 0·090), particularly among impoverished groups. However, this association also varied across welfare regimes. In Eastern European welfare regimes, a 1 % rise in the price of food over wages was associated with a 0·076 percentage point rise in food deprivation (95 % CI 0·047, 0·105) while in Social Democratic welfare regimes we found no clear association (P=0·864). Rising prices of food coupled with stagnating wages are a major factor driving food deprivation, especially in deprived groups; however, our evidence indicates that more generous welfare systems can mitigate this impact.

A brave new world: The problems and opportunities presented by new media technologies in prisons

This article discusses the digital inequalities experienced by prisoners and the potential opportunities that providing ‘new’ media in prisons offer for offender rehabilitation and resettlement. Currently denied access to online and social media that most of us take for granted, and unable to communicate in ways that have become ‘ordinary’ in the wider community, it is argued that prisoners experience profound social isolation and constitute one of the most impoverished groups in the digital age. In prisons which provide selected prisoners some access to information and communication technologies, their high socio-cultural status and consequent construction as a ‘privilege’ frequently results in them being used in the exercise of ‘soft’ power by prison officer gatekeepers. Moreover, when prisoners come to the end of their sentences, they not only are faced with prejudice and poor job prospects due to their criminal record, but their digital exclusion during a period of incarceration may have compound effects and lead to long-term and deep social exclusion.

(B)Locked sites: cases of Internet use in three British prisons

ABSTRACTBased on a qualitative scoping exercise in three British prisons, this article discusses digital inequalities experienced by prisoners and the potential opportunities that digital media in prisons offers for offender rehabilitation and resettlement. As they are currently denied access to online and social media that most of us take for granted, physically cut off from their communities, and unable to communicate with family and friends in ways that have become normal in society, we argue that prisoners experience profound social isolation and constitute one of the most impoverished groups in the digital age. Our results show that prisoners display high levels of both curiosity and enthusiasm as well as fear and reservation toward Internet-enabled technologies, depending on age and gender as well as the length of their sentence. On release from prison, they are not only faced with prejudice and poorer job prospects than the average citizen due to their criminal record, but their digital exclusion during incarceration may have compound effects and lead to supercharged digital and social exclusion. We argue that secure access would be highly beneficial to prisoners who pose a low risk to society, especially during the rehabilitation and release phases.

From Folkhem to lifestyle housing in Sweden: segregation and urban form, 1930s–2010s

This article analyses the political and ideological transformations underlying the gradual privatisation and deregulation of the mid-twentieth-century Keynesian model of housing provision in Sweden. We identify a series of three political and ideological shifts in housing policy and urban form since the 1930s: regulating Folkhem housing, deregulating Folkhem housing, and back to business in housing. We argue that even though the Folkhem parole of ‘housing for all’ differs extensively from the current situation where the market is ‘housing the privileged’, segregation trends have, from the Folkhem to the post-welfare period, been shaped by both state interventions and market forces. Second, we argue that there is a continuing trend through which newly constructed housing has metamorphosed from a basic human right for the working class into an expression of individual distinction and ‘style’ for the upper middle and middle classes. While privileged classes, more than ever before in modern Swedish housing history, have the possibility to choose new forms of housing, the most impoverished groups live in residual and often stigmatised peripheral housing areas. One main conclusion is that recent forms of housing for privileged groups signal a cultural and ideological shift towards new, more elitist conceptions of housing and privilege.

Tricks of the Trade: Debt and Imposed Sovereignty in Southernmost Kham in the Nineteenth to Twentieth Centuries

Southernmost Kham, which borders Burma and Yunnan Province, remained at the juncture of several mutually competing political centers until the first half of the twentieth century. On the fringes of Tibetan, Naxi, and Chinese expansion and increasing political control, several Tibeto-Burman–speaking groups such as the Drung and Nung gradually became integrated into their neighbors’ polities. Their political dependency often arose from trading with and accepting loans from commercial agents and from the intermediaries of local rulers, Naxi and Tibetans alike. This article addresses this practice of providing credit, which was developed at the expense of impoverished groups who were often obliged to accept the terms of the transaction. The author particularly emphasizes the connections between this system of debt dependency, the relationship between creditors and debtors that has to be considered in terms of exchange and reciprocity, and the question of political legitimacy. Within this broader context of regional interethnic relations, the article provides a detailed analysis of the concrete terms of the political relationship that existed between Drung communities and Tibetan chiefs of Tsawarong, which contributes to an understanding of the workings of this relationship and its economic, territorial, and even ritual components.

Two Treatments of Pluralism: Canada and the United States

Canada and the United States, while similar in many ways, diverge substantially when it comes to family law. Canada’s marriage and divorce law is national, while the U.S. family law is largely governed by state law. This makes rules in the United States heterogeneous compared to those in Canada, and thus easier to tailor to the preferences of people living in the various states. A more important difference between the two treatments is that Canada supports a diversity of relationships positively (through providing for financial assistance and legal recognition) and through its public policy. The United States, while tolerating most family forms, formally recognizes only marriage and adoption, leaving adults in heterodox relationships to private support or contract. In both these North American jurisdictions, people live in a variety of family forms. While most heterosexual couples marry, some do not. This paper considers the effects of the differing policies on young people in two minority groups, the Quebecois in Canada and African Americans in the United States, both of which groups de facto eschew formal marriage. Both are relatively impoverished groups, and both historically have suffered discrimination and been underrepresented among the national power elites. Yet despite these surface differences, the two groups diverge in terms of the mental health of their youth, and quite notably in terms of the rate at which they commit suicide. This chapter will attempt to portray these similarities and differences as well as propose several reasons for the differing results. Most of my interactions with Juergen Backhaus over the past 20 years stemmed from his editorship of the European Journal of Law and Economics. Some of these involved articles that were for some reason too controversial to find ready acceptance elsewhere.

On Considering Alternative Accommodation and the Rights and Needs of Vulnerable People

Courts have recently been at pains to incorporate detailed descriptions of the squalid conditions that prevail in informal settlements and inner-city buildings that have been abandoned by their owners. It has also become customary for courts to include a detailed overview of the history of the occupation to highlight the daily struggles of these unlawful occupiers. Despite this acknowledgment of the realities of the accommodation of impoverished groups, the courts have continued to issue eviction orders that are sought in the name of health and safety considerations or development without any serious regard to the disastrous impact that the evictions and subsequent relocations to distant accommodation will have on the livelihoods of the unlawful occupiers. It is therefore regrettable that the courts do not use the social and historical context of the unlawful occupation that they narrate at the beginning of these judgments to craft context-sensitive eviction orders in terms of the Prevention of Illegal Eviction from and Unlawful Occupation of Land Act 19 of 1998 (PIE). This lack of real engagement with the intolerable conditions that unlawful occupiers live in significantly reduces the impact that the availability of alternative accommodation has as a consideration. This is furthermore at odds with the principle that courts should be reluctant to evict relatively settled occupiers unless it is satisfied that alternative accommodation is available. This article proposes an organising framework for considering the suitability of alternative accommodation as part of the just and equitable eviction order that a court must grant in terms of s 4(8) and (9) of PIE. This organising framework is based on the categories of people that PIE explicitly requires courts to have regard to in ss 4(7) and 6(3) when considering whether it is just and equitable to evict the unlawful occupiers.

Leisure Activity Styles among Kaohsiung City Residents: Application of Taiwan Leisure Activity List

The purpose of this study was to explore the level of leisure participation, leisure activity types and leisure activity styles among Kaohsiung city residents. Since leisure is culturally and regionally contextualized, we noted that leisure activity list developed in North America is not applicable to Taiwan. Thus, we employed Yeh, Hsu, and Chick's (2011) Taiwan leisure activity list which was developed by using free-listing technique. This study population was Kaohsiung city residents with an average age over 18 years. Data were collected in July-September, 2008 from 11 city administrative zones, and 274 questionnaires were analyzed. The study revealed that (1) most frequently participated leisure activities of Kaohsiung city residents, including watching TV, listening to music, reading, sleeping, internet, walking, eating, chatting and tea drinking that are mostly indoors, passive and social activities, (2) seven leisure activity types were identified, including physical, consumptive, cultural, travel, internet, hike and urban types, and (3) Kaohsiung city residents possessed outdoors, indifference, consumption and entertainment, internet, and physical leisure activity styles. Based on our results, three conclusions were drawn: (1) leisure activities can be divided into core and balance categories. (2) the respondents can be categorized as leisure rich, leisure average and leisure impoverished groups. (3) leisure activity style, with the aid of demographics, was useful tool for business marketing and promotion. Recommendations were made for business, government and general public. Contributions and implications for leisure research were also disclosed.

Scattered sand: the story of China's rural migrants

Each year, 200 million workers from China's vast rural interior travel between cities and provinces in search of employment: the largest human migration in history. This indispensable army of labor accounts for half of China's GDP, but is an unorganized workforce - scattered sand, in Chinese parlance - and the most marginalized and impoverished group of workers in the country. For two years, the award-winning journalist Hsiao-Hung Pai traveled across China visiting laborers on Olympic construction sites, in the coal mines and brick kilns of the Yellow River region, and at the factories of the Pearl River Delta. She witnessed the outcome of the 2009 riots in the Muslim province of xinjiang; saw towns in rubble more than a year after the colossal earthquake in Sichuan; and was reunited with long- lost relatives, estranged since her mother's family fled for Taiwan during the Civil War. Scattered Sand is the result of her travels: a finely wrought portrait of those left behind by China's dramatic social and economic advances.

Environmental stimulation influence the cognition of developing mice by inducing changes in oxidative and apoptosis status

Environment condition has been shown to play an important role in brain development. The present study examined the effects of enriched and impoverished environment on both spatial and emotional learning and memory of young mice and explored the underlying mechanisms. 3-week-old mice were housed in enriched environment (n=10, 10 mice in a large cage with toys and a running wheel), or standard environment (n=10, 10 mice in a large cage without objects), or impoverished environment (n=10, single mice in a small cage without objects) for 6weeks. Then, the spatial and emotional cognition of mice were evaluated by the water maze and step-down inhibitory avoidance test, respectively. To explore the underlying mechanisms, oxidation measurement in hippocampus and medial-temporal lobe cortex (MTLC) and apoptosis examination in hippocampus were performed. Results showed that compared with standard environment group, enriched and impoverished mice exhibited high and low performance levels in behavior tests, respectively. The oxidative status of hippocampus and MTLC were decreased in enriched group but increased in impoverished group. Moreover, changes in apoptosis of hippocampus in these two groups showed the same tendency with oxidative status. These results suggest that environment condition can simultaneously influence spatial and emotional learning and memory, which may result from inducing changes in the oxidative and apoptosis status in associated brain regions. Here, we firstly report using young mice to examine the oxidative status as a primary and direct factor to explore the mechanism of effects of different environment on both spatial and emotional cognition.