Agricultural Importance Research Articles

Development of In Vitro Regeneration Protocol for Sweet Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) using Cotyledon as Explant

Plant tissue culture techniques offer a promising avenue for the efficient propagation of sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum L.), a valuable crop with significant agricultural importance. An effective and repeatable in vitro plant regeneration protocol was developed for the CKN-1 (Lemon yellow) and CKN-8 (Red) genotypes of sweet pepper. Utilizing cotyledonary leaf and cotyledonary node explants, various concentrations and combinations of growth regulators were tested for shoot rejuvenation. For both explants, MS medium supplemented with 8 mg/L BAP, 0.02 mg/L NAA, and 0.5 mg/L IAA was found to be most effective for achieving high rates of response and shoot induction. Notably, cotyledonary node explants outperformed cotyledonary leaf explants, displaying a remarkable 80% response within 11-12 days. Additionally, the supplementation of 1 mg/L IBA with MS medium significantly improved root initiation, with cotyledonary node explants exhibiting the highest responsiveness at 83.77%. Throughout all stages, the genotype CKN-8 (Red) consistently outperformed CKN-1 (Lemon yellow), including in the percentage of regenerated plant establishment. J Bangladesh Agril Univ 22(3): 310–316, 2024

Agricultural plastic pollution reduces soil function even under best management practices.

Soil plastic contamination is considered a threat to environmental health and food security. Plastic films-which are widely used as soil mulches-are the largest single source of agricultural plastic pollution. Growing evidence indicates that high concentrations of plastic negatively affect critical soil functions. However, the relationships between agricultural plastic accumulation and its biogeochemical consequences in regions with relatively low levels of soil plastic pollution remain poorly characterized. We sampled farms across the California Central Coast (a region of global agricultural importance with extensive plastic mulch-based production) to assess the degree and biogeochemical consequences of plastic pollution in fields subject to "best practice" plastic mulching application and removal practices over multiple years. All farms exhibited surface soil plastic contamination, macroplastic positively correlated with microplastic contamination levels, and macroplastic accumulation was negatively correlated with soil moisture, microbial activity, available phosphate, and soil carbon pool size. These effects occurred at less than 10% of the contamination levels reported to degrade field soils, but were relatively subtle, with no detectable relationship to microplastic concentration. Identifying declines in soil quality with low levels of macroplastic fragment accumulation suggests that we must improve best management plasticulture practices to limit the threat to soil health and agricultural productivity of unabated plastic accumulation.

Comparing the Effects of Information Globalization on Agricultural Producer Prices in Developing and Developed Countries

Existing studies claim that the Internet of Things (IoTs) raises agricultural producer prices while others claim the contrary. Meanwhile, no studies have been conducted to investigate the impact of IoTs at the macro level, as represented by information globalization. The main objective of this study is to determine the impact of information globalization on agricultural producer prices in developing and developed countries. This study used time series data from 1991 to 2020 and cross-section data from 66 developing and 26 developed countries. The data was analyzed using two-stage least squares. The first stage of analysis shows that pesticides and farm machinery increase agricultural production in developing and developed countries, while employment in agriculture, forestry, and fishing has the opposite effect. Meanwhile, nutrient nitrogen, manure, and irrigation have differing effects on agricultural production in the two areas. The second stage of analysis shows that agricultural producer prices in developing and developed countries will rise when agricultural production, agricultural import, and human capital increase. Agricultural value-added, food consumer price inflation and population growth have varying impacts on agricultural producer prices. Meanwhile, the main variable investigated in this study, information globalization, has been proven to increase agricultural producer prices in both developing and developed countries.

Transcriptional regulation of hormone signalling genes in black pepper in response to Phytophthora capsici

IntroductionBlack pepper (Piper nigrum L.) is a non-model spice crop of significant agricultural and biological importance. The ‘quick wilt’ disease caused by the oomycete Phytophthora capsici is a major threat, leading to substantial crop loss. The molecular mechanisms governing the plant immune responses to this pathogen remain unclear. This study employs RNA sequencing and transcriptome analysis to explore the defense mechanisms of P. nigrum against P. capsici.ResultsTwo-month-old P. nigrum plantlets were subjected to infection with P. capsici, and leaf samples were collected at 6- and 12-hours post-inoculation. RNA was extracted, sequenced, and the resulting data were processed and assembled. Differential gene expression analysis was conducted to identify genes responding to the infection. Additionally, the study investigated the involvement of Salicylic acid (SA), Jasmonic acid (JA), and Ethylene (ET) signalling pathways. Our transcriptome assembly comprised 64,667 transcripts with 96.7% completeness, providing valuable insights into the P. nigrum transcriptome. Annotation of these transcripts identified functional categories and domains, provided details on molecular processes. Gene expression analysis identified 4,714 transcripts at 6 h post-infection (hpi) and 9,416 at 12 hpi as differentially expressed, revealing dynamic regulation of immune-related genes. Furthermore, the study investigated key genes involved in biosynthesis pathways of Salicylic acid, Jasmonic acid, and Ethylene signalling. Notably, we found differential regulation of critical genes associated with these pathways while comparing data before and after infection, thereby shedding light on their roles in defense mechanism in P. nigrum defense.ConclusionsThis comprehensive transcriptome analysis of P. nigrum response to P. capsici attack provides valuable insights into the plant defense mechanisms. The dynamic regulation of innate immunity and the involvement of key signalling pathways highlight the complexity of the plant-pathogen interaction. This study contributes to our understanding of plant immunity and offers potential strategies for enhancing P. nigrum resistance to this harmful pathogen.

The influence of planting density on the oil and fatty acids content of soybean in hydroponic and soil conditions of the Ararat Valley

Background: Plant seed oils are major renewable resources from nature that can be used in multiple applications. Oils and fats are a vital component of human diets. About 1/3 of the daily energy requirements of a healthy diet come from fats. Each branch of the food industry has its own demands for the fatty acid composition of seed oils. High amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids are a requirement of healthy diets. However, food manufacturers need highly saturated fatty acids because they need oil that is resistant to high temperatures and oxidation. Soybean oil is second only behind palm oil as the most commercially abundant plant oil globally. Soybean has been recognized for its agricultural importance and their various positive effects on human health. Objective: to identify the quantitative changes of soybean fatty acids depending on the planting density and growing conditions in the Ararat Valley of Armenia. Methods: Soybean was grown in hydroponic and soil conditions of the Ararat Valley. The seeds were sown in the middle of April. Experiments were carried out in hydroponic equipment and soil with different planting densities (30, 50, 70 and 90 plants/m2). The oil content was measured by using the pulsed nuclear magnetic resonance method. The composition of fatty acids in seed oil was analyzed by chromatographic method on "Chromatec Crystal 5000" GC. Results: Oil content ranged from 19.6% to 24.4% in all variants. The maximum content was registered in soil with 30 plant/m2 planting density. Linoleic acid content ranged from 46.35 to 51.28% of the total fatty acid content, regardless of planting density and growing media. The content of linolenic acid ranged from 4.13 to 5.11% in all variants. The maximum content of ω-3 and the minimal content of ω-9 was recorded in hydroponics at 30 plants/m2 planting density. The highest percentage of stearic acid was observed in the soil variant with a planting density of 30 plants/m2. Interestingly, the variants did not differ in the total content of the 5 main fatty acids (98.84-98.95%). Growing medium had no significant effect on the total saturated fatty acids content; in all variants it ranged from 14.29% to 14.83%. Total unsaturated fatty acids content ranged from 85.2% to 85.7%. The hydroponic variant with a planting density of 30 plants/m2 had the lowest ratio of ω-6 and ω-3 fatty acids (10:1). Conclusion: Planting density and growing media had a significant influence on the content of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Under hydroponic conditions the lowest content of monounsaturated and the highest content of polyunsaturated fatty acids were observed at the lowest planting density (30 plants/m2), which can be used as a functional food for daily consumption. Keywords: Glycine max (L.) Merr., soilless culture, ω-3, ω-6, ω-9, saturated acids.

The Relationship between Agricultural Production, Agricultural Exports and Economic Growth in Türkiye: Cointegration and Causality Analysis

This study aimed to assess the influence of agricultural production and agricultural product exports on economic growth within the Turkish economy. To achieve this, annual data spanning from 1980 to 2022 were utilized to construct a model, employing the ARDL Bounds Test to discern the long-term cointegration relationship among variables and the Fourier Toda-Yamamoto Causality Test to determine causality relationships. The empirical findings from the ARDL Bounds Test indicate that increases in both agricultural production and agricultural product exports positively impact economic growth. Moreover, results from the Fourier Toda-Yamamoto Causality Test unveil a two-way causal relationship between agricultural production and GDP, while a one-way causality relationship is observed between agricultural product exports and GDP. Despite the declining share of the agricultural sector in GDP over the years in Turkey, these findings underscore the enduring importance of agriculture in driving economic growth and creating value. As potential solutions to Turkey's balance of payments challenges, strategies such as boosting domestic demand, expanding the domestic market, and augmenting agricultural sector contributions to foreign exchange earnings through agricultural export subsidies are proposed. Furthermore, efforts to mitigate income disparities between the agricultural sector and other sectors could foster socio-economic development in rural areas, thus promoting a more equitable distribution of national income across society.

Agricultural Exports, Other Exports, Imports, and Economic Growth: An ARDL Approach for Tunisia

<p><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 14pt; font-family: 'times new roman', times, serif;">This paper aims to study and quantify the impact of agricultural exports on economic growth along with other variables in Tunisia. For that purpose, we estimate the relationship between GDP, agricultural exports, other exports, and imports by applying the ARDL approach under the period 1990-2020. The results show a negative and insignificant impact of agricultural exports on economic growth in the long and short run. Other exports negatively and significantly impact economic growth, while imports are found to have a positive impact on long-term economic growth. The findings have economic implications for sectors and activities that should be promoted to accelerate economic growth.</span></p>

The impact of buckwheat and paulownia (Paulownia elongata × P. fortunei) intercropping on beekeeping value and buckwheat yield

Increasing crop diversity is a way for agriculture to transition towards a more sustainable and biodiversity-friendly system. Growing buckwheat intercropped with paulownia can contribute not only to mitigating climate change but can also enrich the environment with species of agricultural importance, without causing a decline in pollinators, since buckwheat is pollinated mainly by the honeybee. In a field experiment comparing growing buckwheat with paulownia against a monoculture crop, we investigated differences in flower visitation and beekeeping value, as well as the associated impact on crop yields. We analysed the effect of intercropping on the beekeeping value of buckwheat in terms of bee population size and the sugar mass in buckwheat flowers, nectar mass in buckwheat flowers, the quality of the delivered raw sugar and biometric characteristics. We found significant differences in the number of branches on the main shoot and the total number of branches. Significantly higher parameters were obtained in sites with buckwheat monoculture. The cultivation method variant did not cause differentiation in either the structure elements or the yield itself. Yields ranged from 0.39 (2021) to 1.59 (2023) t·ha−1. The average yield in intercropping was slightly lower (0.02 t·ha−1) than in the monoculture system of buckwheat (0.93 t·ha−1). More flowers per plant per day of observation and more flowers in millions of flowers per hectare per day of observation were observed in the intercropping of buckwheat with paulownia. Based on our experiment, we concluded that growing buckwheat in monoculture significantly increased the number of flowers, resulting in an increase in pollinator density and an increased number of pollinators per unit area.

The Determination of Woody Biomass Resources and Their Energy Potential from Hazelnut Tree Cultivation

The aim of this study was to estimate the shoot weight of four selected hazelnut cultivars and to see if the morphological characteristics of the cultivar and the age of the shoots affect their quality when used as fuel. This study shows that the cultivar ‘Olga’ generated the highest amounts of woody biomass (6507 t·ha−1), while ‘Olbrzymi z Halle’ generated the lowest (3843 t·ha−1). ‘Olbrzymi z Halle’ had the highest calorific values (HHVs) (18.08 MJ·t·ha−1 for annual shoots and 18.03 MJ·kg−1 for perennial shoots) and ‘Olga’ had the lowest calorific values (16.64 MJ·kg−1 for annual shoots and 16.39 MJ·kg−1 for perennial shoots). The age of the shoots had a minimal effect on the chemical and energy parameters. Emissions were the highest for ‘Olbrzymi z Halle’ (CO: 57.74 MJ·kg−1 for perennial shoots, CO2: 1414.05 MJ·kg−1) and lowest for ‘Olga’ (CO: 50.57 MJ·kg−1, CO2: 1238.46 MJ·kg−1). The cultivar ‘Olbrzymi z Halle’, which generated the least amount of biomass compared to the other cultivars, stands out for its high energy value due to its low moisture and ash contents and its high carbon and hydrogen contents, making it attractive for the purposes of biofuel production and supporting sustainable agriculture. The practical implications of the research findings include the selection of suitable varieties for biofuel production, the management of biomass moisture content, and the optimisation of combustion techniques to reduce emissions. The potential for using hazelnut shoots as a biofuel highlights the importance of sustainable agriculture and renewable energy production. The results provide valuable information that can support decisions regarding the cultivation and use of hazelnut shoots for biofuel production while minimising negative environmental impacts.

Yellow Dwarf Virus Resistance in Barley: Phenotyping, Remote Imagery, and Virus-Vector Characterization.

Yellow dwarf viruses (YDVs) spread by aphids are some of the most economically important barley (Hordeum vulgare) virus-vector complexes worldwide. Detection and control of these viruses are critical components in the production of barley, wheat, and numerous other grasses of agricultural importance. Genetic control of plant diseases is often preferable to chemical control to reduce the environmental and economic cost of foliar insecticides. Accordingly, the objectives of this work were to (i) screen a barley population for resistance to YDVs under natural infection using phenotypic assessment of disease symptoms, (ii) implement drone imagery to further assess resistance and test its utility as a disease screening tool, (iii) identify the prevailing virus and vector types in the experimental environment, and (iv) perform a genome-wide association study to identify genomic regions associated with measured traits. Significant genetic differences were found in a population of 192 barley inbred lines regarding their YDV symptom severity, and symptoms were moderately to highly correlated with grain yield. The YDV severity measured with aerial imaging was highly correlated with on-the-ground estimates (r = 0.65). Three aphid species vectoring three YDV species were identified with no apparent genotypic influence on their distribution. A quantitative trait locus impacting YDV resistance was detected on chromosome 2H, albeit undetected using aerial imaging. However, quantitative trait loci for canopy cover and mean normalized difference vegetation index were successfully mapped using the drone. This work provides a framework for utilizing drone imagery in future resistance breeding efforts for YDVs in cereals and grasses, as well as in other virus-vector disease complexes.

Viromes of arthropod parasites and their hosts: The case of bats and bat ectoparasites

Blood feeding ectoparasites of bats have been found to contain insect-specific and vertebrate-infecting viruses of agricultural and medical importance. While it is plausible that some of these are of bat origin, those would be sourced either from the bat exterior or their blood meal. Bats, in addition to their regular diets, consume numerous ectoparasites during grooming. All microbes on and in the ectoparasites would then be introduced into the bat gut upon ingestion of the ectoparasites. To investigate the potential impact of bat ectoparasite viromes on the gut viral microbiome of bats, we compared virus sequences from bats and their blood feeding ectoparasites collected from Yunnan Province, China. Although all the co-occurring viruses were bacteriophages, we observed that bats contained a larger set of viruses than their ectoparasites, and that the set of predicted viruses present in the bats were more diverse than those present in bat ectoparasites. Our analysis suggests that despite a heavy influx of ectoparasites into the digestive tract of bats through consumption, there are only few co-occurring/shared viruses between bats and their ectoparasites, and that these ectoparasites may not be a major driver of bat virome diversity. Our findings provide necessary preliminary data for the evaluation of bat ectoparasites as a potential source of bat infecting viruses.

A Survey on Crop Management in Smart Agriculture

The agricultural sector's importance is highlighted by the upcoming global population growth predicted by the food and agriculture organization. This growth will lead to increased food demand. However, traditional farming methods require a lot of time and effort and result in diminishing returns. Recent technological advancements, especially in the Internet of Things (IoT), are changing this landscape by introducing smart agriculture. Smart agriculture aims to improve decision-making and crop management using IoT's connectivity and data analysis capabilities. Artificial intelligence (AI) is becoming crucial in this context, offering speed, accuracy, and cost-effectiveness. Machine learning, a type of AI, is beneficial in detecting yields and forecasting weather. This survey highlights the evolving field of intelligent agriculture, covering topics like crop monitoring, and anomaly detection, and explains the main challenges in farming practices.

A Review on Financial Literacy for Farmer-educate to Empower

The volume of farming community in the world ranges upto 30% [1]. India is a significant global contributor in the agriculture industry. Agriculture and allied sectors are the main source of livelihood to about 55% of India’s population. Of the country's population engaged in agriculture and related sectors, 69% live in rural areas, with the majority of these people being farmers [2]. Although, India is having top standings in terms of highest milk production, livestock population etc., but on the ground reality farmers face many constraints hindering the sustainability in production and productivity of agriculture sector. Among several constraints exist, financial literacy poses to be one of the major constraints hindering farmers growth. Financial inclusion and, eventually, financial stability were seen as much aided by financial literacy in India. Among all farming households, about 27-37% are financially literate and have access to official credit sources [3]. Recognizing the importance of agriculture and allied sector in India’s development, the Government, Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and many financial research institutes in collaboration with farmer-oriented universities like agriculture, veterinary and allied universities have played an important role for catering to the increasing awareness on financial literacy and access to credit services among farmers as there exist visible lacunae in achieving improved farmers economy [4]. The financial literacy was found to have direct impact on socio-economic factors and hence protocols containing suitable delivery services that addressing financial concepts results in producing beneficial effect and long-term sustainability on farming communities [5].

Genome-wide association study of appearance quality traits and development of KASP makers in vegetable soybean

Vegetable soybean [(Glycine max (L.) Merr.], commonly referred to as edamame, holds significant agricultural importance in China as a legume vegetable harvested at the pod-filling stage (R6). The visual appeal of vegetable soybeans, crucial for consumer preference and marketability, depends on factors such as pod length, pod width, and pod color. This study cultivated 264 vegetable soybeans in Nanjing, Huai'an, and Nantong to assess pod traits using PlantPhenoM, a system for pod phenotypic identification and analysis. Results revealed a variability range of 8.64 to 30.00% in appearance quality traits among vegetable soybeans. Leveraging phenotypic data and employing a genome-wide association study (GWAS) we identified 525 SNPs significantly linked to appearance quality traits in different regions. In addition, candidate genes (Glyma.04G004700, Glyma.15G051600, Glyma.18G225700, Glyma.18G225900, and Glyma.18G272300) associated with target traits were identified, and KASP markers for S04_372771 (pod length), S18_51477324 (pod width), and S18_55553200 (pod color) were developed, respectively. This research offers valuable insights for breeding superior vegetable soybean varieties and lays the groundwork for exploring candidate genes and molecular markers related to appearance and quality traits in vegetable soybeans.

Hierarchical classification for improving parcel-scale crop mapping using time-series Sentinel-1 data

Parcel-scale crop classification utilizing time-series satellite observations is of significant importance in precision agriculture. The prior knowledge that crop types can be organized in a hierarchical tree structure is beneficial for improving crop classification. Moreover, the crop hierarchy aligns with the coarse-to-fine cognitive process of geographic scenes. Based on the crop hierarchy, this study developed a general hierarchical classification framework for enhancing crop mapping using time-series Sentinel-1 data. Central to this method is a deep-learning-based hierarchical classification model that explores and makes use of crop hierarchical knowledge. First, preprocessed Sentinel-1 data were geometrically overlaid onto farmland parcel maps to derive parcel-scale time-series features. Second, we constructed a hierarchical crop type system for study areas based on the crop phenology of labeled crop-type samples. Third, we developed a deep-learning-based hierarchical classification model to identify crop types for each parcel, to generate final crop-type classification maps. The proposed approach was further discussed and verified through the implementation of parcel-scale time-series crop hierarchical classifications in a study area in France with farmland parcel maps and time-series Sentinel-1 data. The classification results, indicating significant improvements greater than 4.0% in overall accuracy and 5.0% in F1 score over comparative methods, demonstrated the effectiveness of the proposed method in learning multi-scale time-series features for hierarchical crop classification utilizing Sentinel-1 data sequences.

Polityka bezpieczeństwa żywnościowego Unii Europejskiej wobec Afryki w kontekście globalnego kryzysu żywnościowego z 2022 roku

EUROPEAN UNION FOOD SECURITY POLICY TOWARDS AFRICA IN THE CONTEXT OF THE GLOBAL FOOD CRISIS OF 2022 Russia’s invasion of Ukraine on February 24, 2022 triggered one of the most serious post-war food security crises in the world. The pillars of food security have been threatened in the countries dependent on agricultural imports from Russia and Ukraine, particularly those in Africa and Asia. The subject of the article is to show the external reaction of the EU to the food crisis towards Africa in the context of contemporary events caused by the war in Ukraine. The aim of the article is to find answers to the following questions: will the current food security crisis affect EU–Africa relations?

Sustainable cotton farming trends: Leveraging natural resource survey insights for U.S. cotton production

Cotton cultivation in the United States is relevant globally, with the nation ranking among the top producers and exporters. This study examines conservation practice adoption trends and technological advancements in U.S. cotton production, focusing on sustainability and productivity. Efforts to improve cotton farming practices have reduced its environmental impacts, including decreased soil loss, water usage, and greenhouse gas emissions. Precision agriculture technologies have been instrumental in enhancing efficiency and reducing input costs, albeit with varying degrees of success. To gain deeper insights into cotton grower challenges and needs, a Natural Resource Survey was conducted in 2023 with 753 respondents. As a follow-up to the 2008 and 2015 surveys, the insights from this survey provide valuable data on grower practices and priorities, highlighting the increasing influence of climate change on cotton production. The findings underscore the importance of conservation agriculture and ongoing research to address grower concerns while improving production efficiency. Particularly noteworthy are the outcomes indicating an increase in cover crop adoption and a decrease in tillage practices, reflecting the industry’s commitment to sustainability. This study contributes to understanding the dynamics shaping the U.S. cotton industry and offers insights into the challenges and opportunities for continual improvement in U.S. cotton cultivation.

Araucaria angustifolia and Picrasma crenata extracts as potential agents for the control of phytopathogenic fungi of agricultural interest

To expand knowledge about native species in southern Brazil, different types of extracts from the thin vinaceous bark of A. angustifolia and fragments of branches of P. crenata were evaluated. These were crushed and kept for fifteen days in contact with hydroalcoholic solutions at 70 % v/v and ethanolic (96 % v/v), seven days in the cold aqueous extract, and through the decoction process for 10 min. Afterward, they were evaluated at concentrations of 1.0 %, 2.5 %, 5.0 %, 10.0 %, and 20.0 % v/v on the mycelial development of the phytopathogenic fungi Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Botrytis cinerea, and Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. The levels of phenolic compounds and total flavonoids were evaluated, and the alcoholic extracts of A. angustifolia had the highest total phenolic content. The main phenolic compounds identified in the P. crenata extract were resveratrol, followed by herperidin, rutin, ferulic acid, and kaempferol, and the main chemical compounds identified in the extracts of A. angustifolia were quercetin, rutin, ferulic acid, kaempferol, and gallic acid. A. angustifolia extracts and P. crenata, during the decoction, were more effective in controlling the phytopathogens C. gloeosporioides and B. cinerea from a concentration of 5 % v/v. The fungus S. sclerotiorum was moderately inhibited in hydroalcoholic extracts at 70 % v/v of P. crenata and A. angustifolia at 1.0 % and 2.5 % v/v concentrations. Effectively controlling these phytopathogenic fungi of agricultural importance confers importance on the conservation of these native species of socio-biodiversity in the Atlantic Forest in southern Brazil.

Homoeologs in Allopolyploids: Navigating Redundancy as Both an Evolutionary Opportunity and a Technical Challenge-A Transcriptomics Perspective.

Allopolyploidy in plants involves the merging of two or more distinct parental genomes into a single nucleus, a significant evolutionary process in the plant kingdom. Transcriptomic analysis provides invaluable insights into allopolyploid plants by elucidating the fate of duplicated genes, revealing evolutionary novelties and uncovering their environmental adaptations. By examining gene expression profiles, scientists can discern how duplicated genes have evolved to acquire new functions or regulatory roles. This process often leads to the development of novel traits and adaptive strategies that allopolyploid plants leverage to thrive in diverse ecological niches. Understanding these molecular mechanisms not only enhances our appreciation of the genetic complexity underlying allopolyploidy but also underscores their importance in agriculture and ecosystem resilience. However, transcriptome profiling is challenging due to genomic redundancy, which is further complicated by the presence of multiple chromosomes sets and the variations among homoeologs and allelic genes. Prior to transcriptome analysis, sub-genome phasing and homoeology inference are essential for obtaining a comprehensive view of gene expression. This review aims to clarify the terminology in this field, identify the most challenging aspects of transcriptome analysis, explain their inherent difficulties, and suggest reliable analytic strategies. Furthermore, bulk RNA-seq is highlighted as a primary method for studying allopolyploid gene expression, focusing on critical steps like read mapping and normalization in differential gene expression analysis. This approach effectively captures gene expression from both parental genomes, facilitating a comprehensive analysis of their combined profiles. Its sensitivity in detecting low-abundance transcripts allows for subtle differences between parental genomes to be identified, crucial for understanding regulatory dynamics and gene expression balance in allopolyploids.

Image of the Farmer in Bendre-kuvempu Poetry

Another occupation belonging to this line is agriculture. The proverb that ``Meti Vidya is better than Koti Vidya'' is an example of the importance of agriculture in the society. The epithets of breadwinner, mother's first son are the epithets for the farmer who is engaged in agriculture. All these became adjectives related to agriculture and the farmer. Beyond this beautiful face, there is another dark face. That is the poor legacy of the farmer. There are no examples of an Indian farmer having a strong economic backbone despite being a breadwinner. Agricultural activity has not become profitable for the farmer due to lack of rainfall, lack of capital, broker-centric markets. Examples of farmers committing suicide in frustration due to the situation of sowing debt and growing distress are a natural phenomenon in recent times. A society that worships the farmer as a 'giver', on the other hand, is blind to the plight of farmers. An overview of how Bendre and Kuvempu saw this contrast is useful in understanding the Indian peasantry.