Import Ban Research Articles

Regulatory Autonomy under the WTO Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures: Implications of Korea–Import Bans, and Testing and Certification Requirements for Radionuclides

AbstractThe recent WTO dispute case, Korea–Import Bans, and Testing and Certification Requirements for Radionuclides, illustrates complex legal issues and significant political implications associated with the regulatory autonomy of a sovereign country under the WTO Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS Agreement). There has been constant tension between the sovereign right of a WTO member state to determine its own appropriate level of protection (ALOP) and the regulatory constraints imposed under the SPS Agreement to prevent abuse and disguised trade protection. The case emerged from this tension and raises questions on the extent of the regulatory autonomy in the application of an SPS measure. This article addresses these questions and examines the criteria for the qualitative standards for the ALOP, the question that the Appellate Body decision did not fully resolve. The criteria for the qualitative ALOP standards affect the regulatory autonomy significantly under the current SPS rules as they determine the manner and the extent to which a Member may meet the sensitive public interests in the application of an SPS measure. The article proposes a rational basis test to restrain abuse of SPS measures while preserving the regulatory autonomy protected under the SPS Agreement.

Assessing protectionism and its impact from consumers' perspective: The case of Senegal's poultry import ban

AbstractImport ban, an extreme form of restriction prohibiting the trade of a good is implemented under different scenarios including an outbreak of a disease to prevent the spread of infection. While such a policy may have varying degrees of impact on different sectors of the domestic economy, end‐users of the good in question are key to providing useful information on its success or failure. In this regard, this study was conducted to assess the impact of Senegal's poultry import ban from consumers' perspective using focus group discussions. Themes arising from the analysis of the data show that the import ban has contributed to the development of the domestic poultry sector, providing jobs for many along the poultry value chain. Furthermore, the supply of domestic chicken has witnessed a surge contributing to an overall fall in prices. Notwithstanding, the ban is neglecting the group of consumers who are driven by convenience, product diversity, and safety when purchasing chicken meat. Modernization of the sector in relation to infrastructure for processing, storage, in addition to the education and training of actors on hygiene in the meat distribution chain are crucial if the gains made by the domestic poultry industry are to be sustained.

The impact of China’s import ban: An economic surplus analysis of markets for recyclable plastics

Over the years, China has imported a significant quantity of plastic waste from the rest of the world. In December 2017, however, it implemented a ban on the import of plastic waste, used paper, and miscellaneous scrap goods. This study aims to provide new insight on the waste trade, with specific focus on the market for recyclable plastics. By employing an economic surplus analysis, we investigate the impact of China’s import ban on the market for recyclable plastics in China and Japan. Obtained results suggest a significant change in economic surpluses; Japan and China’s surpluses reduced by 58 billion yen and 1,304 billion yen at the maximum, respectively.

The Evolutionary Trend and Impact of Global Plastic Waste Trade Network

Marine plastic waste, global warming, and ozone holes have become global environmental problems that need to be resolved urgently. With the promulgation of plastic bans in many countries, the global plastic waste trade will undergo tremendous change. In order to explore the future evolutionary trend of the global plastic waste trade network, this paper focuses on the analysis of the import and export of plastic waste from major trading countries around the world. Based on the bilateral trade volume of plastic waste from 1990 to 2019, a global plastic waste trade network is constructed, and the structure and characteristics of the network are studied. The results show that the global plastic waste trade network has shifted its center of gravity, and the import center has gradually shifted from China to Southeast Asia. The global plastic waste trade network presents a sparse state. Moreover, the dependence of related countries on plastic waste trade decreases, whilst the closeness of trade links also decreases. Sudden factors such as plastic waste import bans have a disruptive impact on plastic waste management.

The impact of China's import ban on global copper scrap flow network and the domestic copper sustainability

Copper is widely used in electronic appliances, transportation equipment, industrial equipment, organic chemistry, medicine, alloys, etc. China is the largest consumer and importer of refined copper. Yet China relies heavily on imports and secondary use of scrap copper resources to meet its demand for copper; ∼60% of its copper is imported. In this study, the copper supply in China was analyzed, based on the impact of China's policy changes on copper imports and the utilization of recycled copper. As China's waste import policies become more stringent, the total amount of copper scrap imported to China dropped sharply, from 4.51 Mt (2012) to 1.35 Mt (2019). China's waste import policy will also affect the international copper trade and have an impact on the world's copper material flow, especially for scrap copper. Under the influence of China's ban, China's major copper scrap importing countries are gradually changing from developed countries (the United States, Japan, etc.) to developing countries (Thailand, Malaysia, etc.). China is in a stage of rapid economic development, with frequent replacement of copper products, and the recycling potential of scrap copper is enormous. At the same time, ore mining is consuming more energy and producing more pollution. Therefore, under the impact of China's import ban, reducing imports and increasing domestic copper scrap utilization can not only improve China's self-sufficiency in regard to copper, but also save energy and reduce emissions, avoiding environmental pollution. Domestic recycled copper will become China's main sources of copper in the future.

Taiwanese voter surveys on restrictions of food imports from five prefectures near fukushima, japan: an empirical analysis

ABSTRACT After the Fukushima nuclear accident in 2011, Taiwan restricted food imports from the five prefectures around Fukushima, Japan. The purpose of this study is to assess the influence of Taiwanese politics on the 2018 import restriction referendum. In this study, we conducted a telephone survey two months after the referendum to examine the difference between the votes cast and the real opinions using cross analysis. After controlling for individual attribute variables such as age, education level, gender, region, and family composition, we found that party support has a significant effect on attitudes toward food imports from Fukushima. In addition, familiarity with Japanese food also influences attitudes. Thus, in this referendum vote, Kuomintang (KMT) supporters mirrored the party’s support for the import ban while Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) supporters had lower voter intention, although their real opinions may have been in favor of open imports. We conclude that efforts to remove food import restrictions should not only emphasize food-safety policy responses but also domestic politics.

Current Technologies in Depolymerization Process and the Road Ahead.

Although plastic is considered an indispensable commodity, plastic pollution is a major concern around the world due to its rapid accumulation rate, complexity, and lack of management. Some political policies, such as the Chinese import ban on plastic waste, force us to think about a long-term solution to eliminate plastic wastes. Converting waste plastics into liquid and gaseous fuels is considered a promising technique to eliminate the harm to the environment and decrease the dependence on fossil fuels, and recycling waste plastic by converting it into monomers is another effective solution to the plastic pollution problem. This paper presents the critical situation of plastic pollution, various methods of plastic depolymerization based on different kinds of polymers defined in the Society of the Plastics Industry (SPI) Resin Identification Coding System, and the opportunities and challenges in the future.

China\u2019s plastic import ban increases prospects of environmental impact mitigation of plastic waste trade flow worldwide

Since the late 1990s, the trend of plastic waste shipment from developed to developing countries has been increasing. In 2017, China announced an unprecedented ban on its import of most plastic waste, resulting in a sharp decline in global plastic waste trade flow and changes in the treatment structure of countries, whose impacts on global environmental sustainability are enormous but yet unexamined. Here, through the life cycle assessment (LCA) method, we quantified the environmental impacts of changes in the flow patterns and treatment methods of 6 types of plastic waste in 18 countries subsequent to the ban. In the short term, the ban significantly improved four midpoint indicators of environmental impact, albeit contributed to global warming. An annual saving of about 2.35 billion euros of eco-cost was realized, which is equivalent to 56% of plastic waste global trade value in 2017. To achieve global environmental sustainability in the long run, countries should gradually realize the transition from export to domestic management, and from landfill to recycling, which would realize eco-costs savings of about 1.54–3.20 billion euros.

Settling outside the WTO: the case of the Indonesia-US kretek cigarette trade dispute, 2010–2014

ABSTRACT In 2010, Indonesia officially filled a complaint to the World Trade Organization (WTO) over a dispute regarding the US import ban on clove cigarettes. Despite the fierce exchange of arguments in the WTO Dispute Settlement Body (DSB), in 2014, Indonesia and the US agreed to cease the formal pursuit and resolve trade disputes through signing of a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) encompassing a more comprehensive trade partnership. This paper examines the reasons behind Indonesia’s preference for settling the clove cigarette dispute by signing the MoU with the US, stemming from the Indonesian Government’s perception of the shared benefits generated and WTO DSB’s institutional weaknesses. The MoU also allows the Indonesian Government to advance its foreign policy agenda and its trade diplomacy objectives, offering broader sets of advantages.

Regulatory Autonomy under the WTO Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Agreement: Implications of Korea – Import Bans, and Testing and Certification Requirements for Radionuclides

The recent WTO dispute case, Korea – Import Bans, and Testing and Certification Requirements for Radionuclides (Korea – Radionuclides), illustrates complex legal issues and significant political implications associated with the regulatory autonomy of a sovereign country under the WTO Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Agreement (SPS Agreement). There has been constant tension between the sovereign right of a WTO member state to determine its own appropriate level of protection (ALOP) and the regulatory constraints imposed under the SPS Agreement to prevent abuse and disguised trade protection. The case emerged from this tension and raises questions on the extent of the regulatory autonomy in the application of an SPS measure. This article addresses these questions and examines the criteria for the qualitative standards for the ALOP, the question that the Appellate Body decision did not fully resolve. The criteria for the qualitative ALOP standards affect the regulatory autonomy significantly under the current SPS rules as it determines the manner and the extent of which a Member may meet the sensitive public interests in the application of an SPS measure. The article proposes a rational basis test to restrain abuse of SPS measures while preserving the regulatory autonomy protected under the SPS Agreement.

Trade effects, policy responses and opportunities of COVID-19 outbreak in Africa

PurposeThe paper is a preliminary assessment of coronavirus disease’s (COVID-19) effects on African trade, policy responses and opportunities within the limitations imposed by data and the information currently available and in the lights of other international organizations’ growth forecasts. The study was undertaken to get deeper understanding of the threats and opportunities of COVID-19 on African trade because of the existing interconnected trade networks making African countries to be more vulnerable and increasing number of restrictions and distortions among major traders. This study aims to present strong information required in underpinning sound national, regional and inter-regional policy responses to keep trade flowing.Design/methodology/approachTo assess COVID-19’s effects on African trade, policy responses and opportunities, this study relied on data and information currently available from organizations such as World Trade Organization (WTO), World Bank (WB), Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, International Monetary Fund, European Union, International Trade Statistics and various African countries’ trade and national statistics publications. The analysis contains two main scenarios. The first, an observed effects scenario (first quarter of year 2020), looks at the observed effect of COVID-19 outbreak on trade in Africa. The second, a potential effects scenario, analyses the potential trade effects if the COVID-19 outbreak lingers and spreads more intensively than is assumed in the baseline scenario.FindingsThe COVID-19 outbreak affects several aspects of international trade even though the full effects of the outbreak are not yet visible in most trade data. Some leading indicators had shown that keeping trade flow can support the fight against COVID-19 as well as having damaging effect on Africa’s trade. COVID-19 had led to a deep fall in transaction, both at the international level and within-regions. Tariffs and other restrictions to imports harm the flow of critical products to African countries. Uncooperative trade policies lead to higher prices of goods in fragile and vulnerable African countries.Research limitations/implicationsLong term in-depth analysis of the effects of COVID-19 on trade using quantitative data is still very difficult because of paucity of data and the great level of the improbability of the trajectory of the spread of the virus. Informed assessment of the full trade impact of the pandemic on African countries is therefore still difficult. Notwithstanding, this study assesses the immediate effects and conveys the likely extent of impending African trade pains and the potential needs for assistance.Practical implicationsTrade in both goods and services plays a key role in overcoming the pandemic and limit its effects by providing access to essential medical goods to treat those affected, ensuring access to food, providing farmers with needed inputs, support jobs and sustain economic activity during global recession. However, temporary COVID-19 trade measures such as borders closure, export prohibition and import ban are a threat to globalization and free trade agreements engaged by some African countries.Social implicationsThe continuous rise in COVID-19 cases is expected to trigger economic recession in Africa despite a rapid expansion and creation of new social protection programmes. The unavoidable decline in trade caused by COVID-19 is already having painful consequences on the economy, social anxiety among families, households, businesses and trade across countries in the continent. COVID-19 trade restrictions aimed at reducing the transmission of the virus have led to loss of income and jobs as well as closure of small and vulnerable businesses. Policymakers should enforce social policies that unite countries within the continents in bad times to reduce social anxiety and hardship.Originality/valueAlthough the effects of COVID-19 outbreak on global and regional trade have received enormous attention recently, facts in the form of data have been thin particularly on African trade. This paper, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, is one of the first set of studies that provides preliminary assessment of COVID-19’s effects on trade in Africa using scenarios-building approach based on the available data and information on regional trade, complemented by those from the WTO, WB and departments of trade and statistics from various African countries such as the Nigeria Nation Bureau of Statistic and Kenyan National Bureau of Statistics.

Trade Sanctions and Agriculture Support in Milk and Dairy Industry: Case of Russia

Economic sanctions between the European Union and Russia have significantly changed trade relations between them, while there are controversial assessments of sanctions’ impact on both economies. Russian import ban has changed domestic producer prices in Russia, offering domestic producers a unique opportunity. There is an opinion that increasing self-sufficiency supports sustainable growth in agricultural production. At the same time, there is question of when and whether Russian import ban will be lifted? This paper offers an overview of changes in milk producer prices and support for milk producers in Russia in the period after the Russian import ban. We argue that currently the Russian Government has little incentive to lift import ban for milk and dairy products, as state support of agricultural producers has been decreased in significance for producers and was replaced by market prices support. Main findings suggest that all Russian federal regions experienced significant increases in transfers to producers from consumers; however, the pace of the increase appears to be different across regions. Paradoxically, the Western sanctions helped Russian milk and dairy industry to strengthen its position.

Russian Food Import Ban – Impacts on Rural and Regional Development in Finland

Abstract This paper investigates the economic effects of the food import ban that Russia imposed vis-à-vis the European Union in 2014 on the development of two structurally different rural regions in Finland. A detailed, rural-urban dataset was compiled for use with a recursive dynamic computable general equilibrium model. In the medium run, the overall economic effects of the trade ban were negative for both regions, and the value added of agriculture and food industries fell notably. When the rigidities of capital availability were relaxed, regional GDP and employment increased in South Ostrobothnia as, for instance, metal industry and construction accelerated economic growth. In North Karelia, where agriculture and food industry account for a minor share of economy, other industries could not compensate the losses the ban caused. Accordingly, the impacts were dependent on the economic structure of the region.

Current and Future Potential Impact of COVID-19 on Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) Supply and Use.

Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth., Rubiaceae) is native to and has traditional use in Southeast Asia. The number of kratom users outside of Southeast Asia has increased significantly in recent decades with use spreading to the Unites States (US) and Europe. Because of its reputed opioid-like psychoactive effects at higher doses, kratom has been regulated in several countries and is subject to an import ban by the US Food and Drug Administration. Nonetheless, in the US it is estimated that 10–15 million people consume kratom primarily for the self-treatment of pain, psychiatric disorders, to mitigate withdrawal from or dependence on opioids, and to self-treat opioid use disorder or other substance use disorders (SUDs). Due to the global COVID-19 pandemic, a shortage in the supply of kratom products may place unexpected burdens on kratom users, potentially influencing some who use kratom for SUD self-treatment to regress to harmful drug use, hence increasing the likelihood of adverse outcomes, including overdose. Inadequate treatment, treatment barriers, and increases in the sales of adulterated kratom products on the internet or in convenience stores could exacerbate circumstances further. Although there are currently no verified indications of kratom scarcity, researchers and clinicians should be aware of and remain vigilant to this unanticipated possibility.

Technological and Economic Decoupling in the Cyber Era

The COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated the shift toward digital services. Meanwhile, the race for technological and economic leadership has heated up, with risks of decoupling that could set back trade and growth and hinder the recovery from the worst global recession since the Great Depression. This paper studies the conditions under which a country may seek to erect barriers—banning imports or exports of cyber technologies—and in effect promote decoupling or deglobalization. A well-known result is that banning imports may be optimal in monopolistic sectors, such as the digital sector. The novel result of this paper is that banning exports can also be optimal, and in some cases superior, as it prevents technological diffusion to a challenger that may eventually become the global supplier, capturing monopoly rents and posing cybersecurity risks. However, export or import bans would come at a deleterious cost to the global economy. The paper concludes that fostering international cooperation, including in the cyber domain, could be key to avoiding technological and economic decoupling and securing better livelihoods.

Policy Recommendations to Reinvigorate Recycling in Arizona

In 2018, China enacted an import ban on twenty-four types of recyclables as part of its National Sword policy, upending recycling programs across the U.S. In Arizona, many municipalities have responded by significantly reducing or completely halting their programs, causing some cities to landfill their recyclables. We have reviewed state legislation and interviewed waste management coordinators to identify the key challenges and opportunities for recycling in Arizona. Informed by our interviews, we call on Arizona state legislators to (1) pass a resolution to appropriate funding for the recycling grant program, (2) amend this program to allow for joint applications, (3) repeal A.R.S. 9-500.38, ‘Prohibition on regulation of auxiliary containers; state preemption; definition’, (4) introduce a tax on products imported in single-use containers, and (5) provide incentives to companies using Arizona recyclables. These policies would reinvigorate recycling within the state, make Arizona’s waste management systems more cost-effective, and foster new local processing and manufacturing industries.

The Politics of Rice Production in Nigeria-Can Nigeria Become Net Exporter or Will Remained Net Importer?

Of recent, the government of Nigeria has been keen in changing the narrative of rice production viz. striving to make the country self-sufficient in rice production. To achieve this, various efforts viz. import ban, credit support programmes etc were embarked upon to boost domestic production in order to meet its demand and possibly engage in exportation soonest. It is in view of this that this research was conceptualized to see whether this goal is feasible or the country would remain a net importer. Time series data which spanned for a period of 58 years (1961-2018) and covered production, area, yield and producer prices were used. The data source was FAO data bank and the collected data were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. The empirical evidence showed that growth rate in the production of rice through the economic reform periods was driven majorly by area expansion with technological effect been marginal. In addition, the current acreage allocation was governed by price, area and institutional factors. Furthermore, rice production has been marked by virulent instability across all the reform periods, thus the country’s rice production has not been in the comfort zone. In addition, the empirical evidence showed area risk and uncertainty-climate change to be the major factors responsible for production variability across the reform periods. Besides, area effect predominates in determining the production growth of rice throughout the economic periods. The future food security of rice in the decade ahead is not promising given that the production trend of rice would be fluctuating, thus a threat to the country’s economic viz. rice food security and foreign reserve. Therefore, realistic and holistic policies are needed to change the future narrative of the country’s rice food security; otherwise the country will remained a net importer.

The effects on Thailand of China's import restrictions on waste: measures and challenges related to the international recycling of waste plastic and e-waste.

This paper has outlined the measures and challenges facing Thailand, which was forced to address a surge in imports of plastic waste and e-waste after China imposed restrictions on its own imports of waste material. Thailand had imposed import restrictions and created an import permit system prior to China’s decision. However, the nation was not prepared for the extent of the subsequent smuggling and other illegal activities, as evidenced by the various problems related to the permit system and customs enforceability in 2018. In response, Thailand banned imports of plastic waste and e-waste, resulting in a loss of business opportunities for companies with legal import permits. Other nations in Southeast Asia, such as Vietnam, Malaysia, and the Philippines, witnessed a similar surge in imports of plastic waste and e-waste after China’s decision to restrict waste imports. These nations subsequently also imposed import bans and/or restrictions. However, the enforceability of such bans and restrictions may be limited in Asia. Thus, exporting countries must secure an appropriate international recycling mechanism.

The expansion and shrinkage of the international trade network of plastic wastes affected by China's waste management policies

Soaring consumption of plastic products globally generates vast amount of plastic wastes, which has been a grand challenge for today's solid waste management system. China has been the world largest importer of plastic wastes for the last three decades. However, due to growing environmental awareness, China decided to stop importing plastic wastes in 2017. This study analyzes the historical evolution of the international plastic wastes trade by using complex network analysis method and shows that China's management policies are the main driving forces to the expansion and shrinkage of the global plastic wastes trade network. We find that the trade network grew most tremendously during mid-1990s to early 2010s. The global total trade volume increased from 0.9 million tons in 1992 to 16.4 million tons in 2012, and the number of trade connections increased from 452 to 2248 during the same period. 2–6% of the trade relations contributed more than 80% of the global total trade volumes. Trade flows among continents or sub-continental regions increased from 38% to 64% during 1997–2012, indicating longer transport distances and spatially more separated trade partners in the network. Results also show that the growth trend stagnated and the network became multipolar again after 2012, when China launched a series of campaigns to strengthen regulations on solid wastes import. China's import ban on plastic wastes issued in 2017 led to a dramatic decline of trade volumes. More and more stringent environmental protection measures in China and other developing countries are transforming the geographic pattern of global waste trade network and may drive developed countries to reconstruct their recycling systems.

Import Bans on Products from Forced Labor in the Trump Era

The United States prohibited the imports of five products suspected to be made by forced labor from companies all over the world on 30 September 2019. This article contextualizes these Withhold Release Orders from the perspective of international law and politics. While the Donald Trump Administration's blunt and protectionist trade policy has been widely criticized, this article argues that it might also create an opening to rethink the multilateral trade regime that prioritizes free trade over the abolishment of forced labor.