Implications For Farmers Research Articles

Opportunities and Challenges on Natural Farming

Natural Farming, an ecological and sustainable agricultural practice, emphasizes minimal human intervention and the use of natural resources for crop cultivation. Unlike conventional farming, which relies heavily on chemical inputs, Natural Farming integrates practices such as minimal tillage and organic inputs like cow dung and plant-based preparations. This case study explores Natural Farming practices among farmers in Tamil Nadu, focusing on their experiences, opportunities, and challenges. The study includes detailed case studies of three farmers in Coimbatore District and each farmer employing different natural farming techniques and facing unique obstacles. The findings reveal that Natural Farming offers significant benefits, including reduced farming costs, improved soil health, and enhanced market opportunities for organic produce. Farmers reported that these practices lead to better crop resilience and higher-quality produce, often fetching premium prices. However, challenges persist, including difficulties in weed control, pest and disease management, labor shortages, and delay in certification, which can affect market access and profitability. The study underscores the potential of Natural Farming to transform agricultural practices by promoting sustainability and reducing dependence on chemical inputs. It also highlights the need for supportive interventions, such as enhanced market access, comprehensive farmer training, and government support to address the identified challenges and maximize the benefits of Natural Farming. This study contributes to a deeper understanding of Natural Farming's role in sustainable agriculture and its implications for farmers in Tamil Nadu.

Climate variability through the lens of applied weather index insurance in Senegal-a novel perspective on the implications of decadal variation

IntroductionWeather-based index insurance is a financial instrument which allows smallholder farmers to protect themselves against climate shocks such as droughts and floods. In many cases, insurance indices are based on one or more earth observation datasets (e.g., rainfall, soil moisture, vegetative health) which are partly covering periods of more than 40 years. While remote sensing products and their associated data have improved over this time, understanding the historical climate variability and trends remains an essential piece in ensuring the development of indexes that best represent farmers’ risks. From a practical perspective, shortening time series to limit the risk of understudied climate variability, such as the Atlantic Multidecadal Variability, sometimes seems to be a quick solution. However, shorter time series jeopardize the overall robustness of the index. Therefore, understanding the links between climate variability, index design, and implications for farmers is key. Weather-based index insurance products in Sahelian West Africa usually face a challenge in robustly quantify underlying climatic decadal variation in seasonal rainfall.MethodsThis study analyzes the influence of decadal shifts in rainfall patterns in Sahelian West Africa, in particular Senegal, on index insurance calibration and design, concluding with practical recommendations for the next generation of drought risk finance instruments in the region.ResultsOur findings indicate that decadal variability has not led to a clear decrease in payouts in recent years compared to earlier years, despite an overall increase in seasonal rainfall. Rather, we find that interannual variability has increased which may be a more critical factor for assessing farmers’ agricultural risk than the increase in total rainfall.DiscussionFocusing on key moments of the cropping calendar in the design of an index shows that an increase in the total average rainfall per season does not result in fewer payouts.

Combining life-cycle assessment and linear programming to optimize social fertilizer costs

This paper focuses on the role of fertilizers within regional nutrient cycles. Bio-based fertilizers can contribute to regional nutrient circularity, but the question remains whether production and consumption of bio-based fertilizers is beneficial to the farmer and the environment. Therefore, both farmers’ private costs and environmental externalities should be taken into account. We formulate a farm-level multi-objective optimization model by considering a range of fertilizers, their costs and the environmental consequences associated with their production and use. The cost-minimization approach is applied to a conceptualized Flemish leek farmer aiming to safeguard nutrient uptake while being constrained by nutrient standards and the availability of on-farm residues. Our results suggest that mineral fertilizers have an important role in the fertilizer mix despite their environmental externalities. Nevertheless, there is also a role for bio-based fertilizers. These results have implications for farmers and policymakers wishing to internalize fertilizer externalities.

Reverting Woodlots to Crop Fields in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania

For some decades, woodlots have been a salient feature of the agricultural landscapes of Mount Rungwe and Uporoto Highlands in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania. Their proliferation amidst socioeconomic conditions and innovation in farming practices influence production choices, and consequently, land use changes. Recently, farmers are reverting prevailing woodlots into crop fields, particularly, Irish potatoes. We investigate this process in order to examine the determinants of the reversion and the implications to agricultural development and people’s livelihoods. The findings come from a survey of smallholders of woodlots in four villages around Mount Rungwe and Uporoto Highlands. Data were collected through structured and in-depth interviews, discussions with focused groups at village levels, review of documents and direct field observation. Time lag for woodlots, safeguarding households’ food security, lack of agricultural support services, high rental market, and emergence of other fruit trees are determinants of the reversion. The reversion has implications for farmers’ decreased access to reliable source of fuelwood as well as opportunity for livelihood diversification.

Unlocking the potential: UTAUT2 framework for embracing self-driving tractors in modern agriculture

This article explores the application of the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology 2 (UTAUT2) framework in the context of integrating self-driving tractors into agricultural practices. With a focus on understanding the factors influencing the acceptance and adoption of this transformative technology, we delve into the implications for farmers, industry stakeholders, and the future of sustainable agriculture and rural tourism.

Cereal rye cover crop termination at or before soybean planting has minimal effect on soybean yield across the midwestern US

ContextInterest is growing among farmers in the Midwestern US region in the potential benefits of establishing cereal rye (Secale cereale L.) as a cover crop. However, they are concerned about the implications and potential trade-offs due to this practice. ObjectiveWe aimed to evaluate the effects of cereal rye cover crop termination at or before soybean planting on soybean (Glycine max [L.] Merr.) seed yield. MethodsField experiments were conducted from 2019 to 2021 across 28 location-years in the Midwestern US. Treatments consisted of no cereal rye, cereal rye termination before soybean planting, and termination at planting. Cereal rye was chemically terminated at each termination timing. Cereal rye biomass and soybean yield were assessed. ResultsDelaying cereal rye termination in soybean systems increased rye biomass, but its impact on soybean yield was inconsistent. Results showed that delayed termination did not reduce soybean seed yield in 25 of 28 location-years compared to a no cover crop treatment. There was no clear evidence indicating that a threshold level of cereal rye biomass accumulation reduced soybean seed yield. ConclusionsOur results suggest that farmers who adopt cereal rye as a winter cover crop in the examined region have a flexible management window for terminating cereal rye, as the timing of termination had minimal effect on soybean seed yield. However, there were no significant soybean seed yield benefits that would justify the associated cost with the use of cover crops. Therefore, conducting long-term studies in the future is highly recommended to better understand how cereal rye cover crops can influence soybean seed yield and soil quality properties over time. Further studies should also investigate the aspect of non-chemical rye management to assess its potential cost-saving effects for farmers adopting this system. ImplicationsThese findings hold several implications for farmers, agronomists, and stakeholders. The increased cereal rye biomass due to delayed termination could offer greater soil benefits. While the inconsistent effects on soybean yield imply flexible termination options for cover crop adoption, the absence of substantial yield benefits underscores the importance of considering both short-term costs and long-term sustainability goals.

Sleep issues and burnout in Irish farmers: A cross sectional survey

Farming can be a demanding, solitary, and unpredictable occupation. As a result, farmers may be more susceptible to sleep issues and burnout than workers in other occupations. However, economic and social pressures that may cause burnout and sleep issues in farmers vary greatly between nationalities. There is a lack of research on sleep and burnout in European, and specifically Irish, farmers using reliable psychometric tests. Therefore, we conducted a cross-sectional prevalence assessment of sleep issues and burnout with a population sample of 351 Irish farmers. Using the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), a subscale of the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI), and the Short Form Health Survey-12 (SFHS), we identified how farmers’ sleep and burnout were correlated with their mental and physical health and identified the role of individual differences such as socioeconomic status, age, and gender. Irish farmers reported frequent burnout (23.6%) and widespread sleep issues (50.1%), with burnt out farmers reporting especially poor sleep. This has serious implications for farmers’ health, as burnt out farmers and farmers with poor sleep both reported worse mental and physical health. We identified age and parenthood as risk factors for burnout but identified no gender differences. While these exploratory findings are constrained by our cross-sectional design, they extend literature on occupational health risks in European agriculture to cover poor sleep and burnout. Irish farmers as a population need health intervention targeting sleep and burnout; especially in older and parent populations.

Assessing how irrigation practices and soil moisture affect crop growth through monitoring Sentinel-1 and Sentinel-2 data.

This study authorizes processes and approaches using optical and microwave data to determine the availability of water in the study area at any given moment. This will aid in identifying the optimal time and location for irrigation to enhance crop growth. For this purpose, a set of spectral vegetation parameters (from Sentinel-2), soil moisture (from Sentinel-1), evapotranspiration, and surface temperature (from Landsat-8) were used, along with field data on water content and irrigation timing. The results showed that both NDVI and NDMI are highly sensitive to moisture, making them the best indices for determining the timing and location of irrigation. This research contributes to sustainable agricultural development. It has implications for farmers, policymakers, and researchers in optimizing irrigation schedules, developing policies for sustainable agriculture, and enhancing crop productivity while conserving water resources. This approach can be particularly useful in regions facing water scarcity, where the efficient use of water resources is crucial for sustainable agricultural development.

Costs and Benefits of Sustainability-Oriented Innovation in the Agri-food Industry: a Review

In light of the increasing demand for sustainable development, the agri-food industry is under pressure to make the transition towards sustainability. Innovation has been identified as a key driver for this transformation. However, the agri-food industry, which in many countries is dominated by small and medium-sized enterprises, is highly sensitive to the benefits, costs and potential risks of sustainability-oriented innovation. At the same time, because of the low propensity of countries in the Mediterranean region to innovate, an in-depth exploration of innovation is necessary. This paper presents a review of the costs and benefits of specific sustainability-oriented innovations, not only economic but also social and environmental, to provide a guide for researchers and adopters of sustainability-oriented innovations in the Mediterranean region. To achieve this goal, this paper classifies the elements being reviewed according to the nature of the innovation and stages of the product life cycle it covers. This paper has implications for farmers, business managers, regulators and policy makers in the Mediterranean region.

Comparison of the Application of Local and Superior Rice Varieties in Terraced Rice Fields and their Implications for Farmers' Income

Comparison of the Application of Local and Superior Rice Varieties in Terraced Rice Fields and their Implications for Farmers' Income

Output-Oriented Agricultural Subsidy Design

Many governments subsidize the agricultural industry, trying to raise the market outputs either for domestic needs or for export. In many countries, particularly developing countries, the producers’ market may be fragmented, involving a large number of farmers with variable productivity levels. The format of subsidies can have significantly different implications for farmers in different market segments. In this study, we examine four types of subsidies. A planting subsidy is paid to a farmer based on the amount of input, and a harvesting subsidy compensates a farmer for the cost incurred during the process of output collection and distribution. The government may also offer a combined subsidy under which a farmer gets paid for both planting and harvesting, or it may offer a selective subsidy under which a farmer can choose to be subsidized on either planting or harvesting but not both. In addition to examining the efficiency of budget spending and social welfare, two common performance measures studied in various contexts, we thoroughly analyze the implications of subsidies on the output and wealth distributions among the farmers. In general, subsidizing on harvesting or overly compensating on planting can increase the disparity among the farmers, whereas an appropriate level of planting subsidy helps to balance the distributions of the farmers’ output and profit. A comprehensive evaluation of the government’s policies reveals that the harvesting subsidy, while inducing the most dispersed output and profit distributions, leads to the most efficient use of input resources and the highest social welfare. The planting subsidy, although being the most effective in balancing the farmer income for a moderate output increase, performs poorly in budget spending, resource usage, and welfare generation when the government sets an aggressive target for output increase. In such a situation, the combined subsidy can offer the most evenly distributed farmer income, with the least amount of budget needed to achieve the output target. This paper was accepted by David Simchi-Levi, operations management. Funding: This work was partially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China [Grants 71471062, 72032001 and 71972071] and the Shanghai Sailing Program [Grant 22YF1451000]. Supplemental Material: The online appendix is available at https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.2023.4749 .

Earn a living? What the Côte d’Ivoire–Ghana cocoa living income differential might deliver on its promise

Despite the high value of the global chocolate market and the high profitability of the few multinational companies dominating it, the farmers growing cocoa beans remain poor. To change this, the two biggest cocoa producers, Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana, have jointly introduced the cocoa Living Income Differential (LID) policy. Charging higher prices for beans, the policy might help mitigate both poverty and the serious child labour and deforestation issues associated with cocoa farming, for which poverty is regarded as a root cause. Nevertheless, the design of the policy and the current lack of complementary measures raise doubts about the success and longevity of the policy and concerns about the implications for farmers in other countries. Accounting for the repercussions with international cocoa markets, this study quantifies the magnitude of the policy’s effects in the LID countries and elsewhere under several alternative configurations of policies and market reactions with the support of model simulations and finds increases in farmer income ranging from zero to sizeable. Discussing the policy’s potential impacts in the past and present context of the cocoa industry, it identifies a number of issues threatening its sustainability. Moreover, it underlines the strong dependence of the policy’s success on chocolate manufacturers’ support unless complemented by supply management measures. Such measures could limit the aggravation of, or even improve, the income situation for farmers elsewhere and the child labour and deforestation issues.

Determinants of Technological Innovation on the Income of Urban Farming Farmers in the Digital Economy Era

The rapid growth of urbanization in urban areas raises doubts about the future of urban farming. However, urban farming can survive due to the ability of urban farming to innovate in expanding its functions in various factors that hinder it. Farmers as actors need to be empowered with various knowledge and technological innovations. The purpose of the study was to analyze the simultaneous and partial effect of variables on land area, risk-taking courage, farmer's age, and sources of information on technological innovation in urban farming farmers in the digital economy era, what factors are dominant, and analyze the effect of technological innovation on farmers' income—survey research method with OLS Multiple Regression of primary data analysis technique on 70 respondents. The result of the research is that the source of information has a significant effect on technological innovation and is the dominant factor with a value of β =57.6%. In contrast, the variables of land area, risk-taking courage, and age have no effect. Technological innovation has a significant impact on income. The research finding is that technological innovation in urban farming is not influenced by land area, age of farmers, and risk-taking courage but predominantly by sources of information that have implications for farmers' income.

Systemic risk, relative subsidy rates, and area yield insurance choice

We investigate the nature of crop yield systemic risk and its implications for farmers' area yield insurance choices. A theory-grounded, normalized measure of systemic risk, R2, is developed and made amenable to empirical analysis through the logit link. The measure is estimated on a large-scale, unit-level corn yield dataset. We find that systemic risk explains less than half of total unit yield variability on average, suggesting that the risk management effectiveness of area yield insurance is low. By relating natural resource endowments with systemic risk, we find that more excessive heat and drought events lead to larger while more excessive precipitation events lead to smaller systemic risk. We then study whether current area yield insurance subsidy rates provide farmers with sufficient subsidy transfers to compensate for the uncovered risk exposure associated with area yield insurance. A new concept, the threshold relative area subsidy rate (TRASR), quantifies a lower bound on the ratio of area yield insurance subsidy rate over individual yield insurance subsidy rate below which risk-averse farmers should always prefer individual yield insurance to area yield insurance. The calibrated TRASR values indicate that current area yield insurance subsidy rates discourage farmers from choosing area yield insurance over individual yield insurance, especially at low area yield insurance coverage levels. We also find that TRASR is positively correlated with systemic risk at the unit-level of analysis, suggesting that farmers who like area yield insurance's risk management features will dislike its transfer implications and vice versa.

Inorganic nitrogen fertilizer, biochar particle size and rate of application on lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) nitrogen use and yield

Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) efficient use of nitrogen (NUE) determines its growth and yield. We assessed the interaction effect of N fertilizer and biochar of different particle sizes and rates on NUE, growth and yield of lettuce. A factorial design arranged in Randomized Complete Block Design with four replications was used to conduct a field experiment at the FRNR farm, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Ghana. The treatment consisted of biochar at 8.33 t and 16.67 t ha−1 with different particle sizes (<2, 5 and 10 mm) and five rates (0, 31.3, 62.5, 93.83 and 125 kg ha−1) of inorganic N fertilizer. Our result showed that integrating 8.33 t ha−1 of <2 mm and 5 mm biochar with 62.5 and 93.8 kgN ha−1, respectively improved lettuce growth, NUE by 30% and yield. The yield (19.3 t ha−1) obtained with these applications is comparable to the achievable yield (20 t ha−1) of lettuce under the sole N recommended rate (125 kgN ha−1). In conclusion, with 8.33 t ha−1 of <2 mm biochar, farmers can reduce the recommended inorganic N rate of lettuce by half (62.5 kg ha−1) and still attain good yield with improved post-harvest soil fertility. This has implications for farmers’ production costs, agriculture waste management and climate change mitigation strategies.

Unraveling the Multiple Drivers of Greening-Browning and Leaf Area Variability in a Socioeconomically Sensitive Drought-Prone Region

The complex attribution of climatic, hydrologic, and anthropogenic drivers to vegetation and agricultural production and their consequential societal impacts are not well understood, especially in socioeconomically sensitive states like Maharashtra, India. Here, we analyzed trends and variability in the MODIS leaf area index (LAI) time series, along with spatiotemporal patterns in precipitation, groundwater storage, agriculture statistics, and irrigation infrastructure, to identify their influences on the vegetation response and discuss their implications for farmers. The state showed greening in all biomes except forests, with a net gain of 17.478 × 103 km2 of leaf area during 2003–2019, where more than 70% of the trend in LAI is represented in croplands. Maximum greening was observed in irrigated croplands, attributable to increased crop productivity, whereas inadequate irrigation facilities with erratic rainfall patterns and droughts were primarily responsible for cropland browning. We discerned the dynamics and variability of vegetation response by incorporating a spectrum of synergistic feedbacks from multiple confounding drivers and found that uneven distribution of water availability across the administrative divisions governed the quantitative distinction in leaf area change. Despite the observed greening trends, the state witnessed a high number of farmer suicides related to droughts and agriculture failures hampering their socioeconomic security; therefore, improved irrigation infrastructure and comprehensive policy interventions are crucial for abatement of farmer distress.

Stay in dairy? Exploring the relationship between farmer wellbeing and farm exit intentions

Farm numbers in western countries have declined rapidly over the last decades, driven by advances in technology and productivity. In parallel with this development, the concept of wellbeing, encompassing an individual's satisfaction with different aspects of their life, has received increased attention in literature. However, few studies have explored the role of farmer wellbeing in relation to farm exit. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to explore whether wellbeing relates to intentions to keep up or exit dairy farming. Due to imbalanced data sets and choice of statistical methods, farm exit studies often suffer from low explanatory power, limiting the ability to draw conclusions. Therefore, in this study we apply XGBoosting, random forests and smoothing splines to analyse the data. Data were collected from 1288 Norwegian dairy farmers. The results show that farmer age together with three dimensions of farmer wellbeing; working situation, quality of life and mental health are associated with intentions to keeping up or to exit dairy farming. As expected, increasing farmer age increases the probability of farm exit. Among important farmer wellbeing items are degree of optimism and loneliness, possible health worries, satisfaction with workday, suitable workload during weekends and feeling valued as a farmer. The results also show that modern statistical learning methods may contribute to make the most of farm exit studies. The findings have implications for farmers, extension services and agricultural politicians.

Advancing Food System Transformation and Addressing Conflicts Through Transdisciplinary Methodologies: Strengths and Limitations of the Community Voice Method, T-Labs, Film-Making and the Miracle Question

Food systems are changing through various socioeconomic and policy processes. For example, in France, following concerns over the effects of pesticides on ecosystems and health, the French government launched the “Ecophyto II+” plan in 2019 that aims for a 50% reduction in the use of pesticides by 2025. This top-down food system transformation is leading to conflicts between stakeholders over how to enact such a policy, and its implications for farmers and their practices. By adopting a transdisciplinary research approach, we explore conflicts linked to food system transformations in the context of three case studies in France. The case studies revolve around conflicts over pesticide use and reduction in three agricultural settings in Bourgogne Franche-Comté, namely (a) water management near Auxerre, (b) apiculture-agriculture relations in the Jura, and (c) viticulture-local resident relationships near Macon. We use four innovative transdisciplinary techniques to integrate inclusively the viewpoints of diverse stakeholders with the aim of generating actionable responses to transform food systems. First, the Community Voice Method (CVM) includes filmed semi-structured interviews and integrates a number of opportunities for participation and successive rounds of data analysis. Second, the interviewees were asked a “miracle question” that encouraged them to step back from conflicts and practices toward their ideal vision of agriculture and food systems. Third, the CVM resulted in the production of four films that relate the visions and perception of each case study interviewees in their own words and in their own setting. Finally, Transformation Labs (T-Labs) conveyed the main results of the CVM knowledge synthesis through the films produced and opened a dialogue toward the development of solutions. We review the four techniques, how they were implemented in the three case studies, and with which outcomes. Thus the aim of this paper is to offer reflections and lessons learnt from different transdisciplinary processes as a means of strengthening their application in other contexts. We argue that such methodologies, whilst resource-consuming, are essential to fully understand the complexity of food system transformations from the often-conflictual perspectives and competing knowledge claims of the multiple actors involved. In addition, we highlight the role of these techniques in building long-term trust between researchers and other stakeholders, and the benefits in terms of opening up dialogue and developing long-term solutions, as determined by the stakeholders themselves.

Emulsion-Based Postbiotic Formulation Is Comparable to Viable Cells in Eliciting a Localized Immune Response in Dairy Cows With Chronic Mastitis.

Bovine mastitis is a disease with a multi-etiological nature, defined as an infection and inflammation of the udder. Mastitis represents a significant ongoing concern in the dairy industry, leading to substantial losses in profits and revenue for farmers worldwide. The predominant causes of bovine mastitis include the pathogens Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus dysgalactiae, Streptococcus uberis, and Escherichia coli. Antibiotic administration is currently the main treatment option for mastitis. However, there is a pressing need for alternative therapies to treat and prevent the disease, especially with the emergence of antibiotic-resistant, mastitis-causing pathogens, resulting in antibiotic treatment failure. One such example is live bio-therapeutics (also known as probiotics), such as Lactococcus lactis DPC3147. The efficacy of this live bio-therapeutic has been demonstrated in several previous trials by our group. The most recent of these trials showed that an emulsion-based formulation of this strain was as effective as a commercial antibiotic formulation in treating sub-clinical and clinical cases of bovine mastitis. Here, we report the results of a follow-up field trial, in which we sought to gain insight into the mechanism of action of such live bio-therapeutics, focussing on chronic mastitis cases. We treated 28 cows with chronic mastitis with two separate emulsion-based formulations containing either viable L. lactis DPC3147 cells (15 cows) or heat-killed L. lactis DPC3147 cells (13 cows). We then evaluated the efficacies of the two formulations (two treatment groups) in terms of stimulating a localized immune response (quantified by measuring IL-8 concentrations in milk collected from udders affected by mastitis) and efficacies in terms of cure rates (quantified by reductions in somatic cell counts and absence of pathogens). We demonstrate that the presence of heat-inactivated bacteria (a postbiotic) was as effective as the live bio-therapeutic in eliciting a localized immune response in cows with chronic mastitis. The response to heat-killed cells (postbiotic) reported herein could have beneficial implications for farmers with regard to prolonging the shelf life of such emulsion-based formulations containing heat-killed cells of L. lactis DPC3147 for curing cows with mastitis.

Stakeholders’ Perceptions on Agricultural Land-Use Change, and Associated Factors, in Nigeria

Agricultural Land-Use Change (ALUC) is a major driver of global environmental change, not least via its direct impact on the sustainability and resilience of the rural economy. Its drivers are complex and have remained contentious, necessitating further empirical study. This study aims to derive context-specific evidence on the driving factors and effects of ALUC from different stakeholders’ perceptions. We carried out household surveys and participatory rural appraisal across Benue State, Nigeria. ALUC has economic, social, ecological, and institutional implications for farmers and on agricultural productivity. Farmers perceived that the main factors driving ALUC were land conflict, government land-use policies and infrastructural development. Stakeholders’ perceptions revealed that although the factors driving ALUC are diverse in nature, they are somewhat embedded within the broader issue of land-use conflict, which has led to cropland abandonment, clearing of forest vegetation, soil degradation, changes from large scale to subsistence farming, and farmers’ eventual loss of interest in agriculture. This suggest that the drivers and implications of ALUC go beyond simple changes to the extent of land used for agriculture, but also incorporates other regional socio-ecological changes. Our study highlights the importance of stakeholders’ perceptions in understanding complex socio-ecological issues if we are to provide clear direction into areas where policy interventions are most needed.