Impact Of Soil Compaction Research Articles

Soil compaction and soil management – a review

AbstractSoil compaction is an important component of the land degradation syndrome which is an issue for soil management throughout the world. It is a long standing phenomenon not only associated with agriculture but also with forest harvesting, amenity land use, pipeline installation, land restoration and wildlife trampling. This review concentrates on the impact of soil compaction on practical soil management issues, an area not previously reviewed. It discusses in the context of the current situation, the causes, identification, effects and alleviation of compaction. The principal causes are when compressive forces derived from wheels, tillage machinery and from the trampling of animals, act on compressible soil. Compact soils can also be found under natural conditions without human or animal involvement. Compaction alters many soil properties and adverse effects are mostly linked to a reduction in permeability to air, water and roots. Many methods can be used to measure the changes. In practical situations, the use of visual and tactile methods directly in the field is recommended. The worst problems tend to occur when root crops and vegetables are harvested from soils at or wetter than field capacity. As discussed by a farmer, the effects on crop uniformity and quality (as well as a reduction in yield) can be marked. By contrast, rendzinas and other calcareous soils growing mainly cereals are comparatively free of compaction problems. The effect of a given level of compaction is related to both weather and climate; where soil moisture deficits are large, a restriction in root depth may have severe effects but the same level of compaction may have a negligible effect where moisture deficits are small. Topsoil compaction in sloping landscapes enhances runoff and may induce erosion particularly along wheeltracks, with consequent off‐farm environmental impacts. Indirect effects of compaction include denitrification which is likely to lead to nitrogen deficiency in crops. The effects of heavy tractors and harvesters can to some extent be compensated for by a reduction in tyre pressures although there is concern that deep‐seated compaction may occur. Techniques for loosening compaction up to depths of 45 cm are well established but to correct deeper problems presents difficulties. Several authors recommend that monitoring of soil physical conditions, including compaction, should be part of routine soil management.

Impact of soil compaction on root architecture, leaf water status, gas exchange and growth of maize and triticale seedlings

Triticale and maize, with different structure of the root system and type of photosynthesis were examined to know changes in shoot physiology and root architecture in response to varying degree of soil compaction. In the root-box, effects of different levels of soil compaction (1.30, 1.47 and 1.58 Mg m -3 ) on a shoot and root dry matter, leaf number and area, number and length of seminal, seminal adventitious, nodal and lateral roots, leaf water potential (ψ), maximum quantum yield of PS II (Fv/Fm) and gas exchange were studied. Severe soil compaction treatments decreased leaf number, leaf area and dry matter of shoots and roots, while increasing shoot-to-root dry matter ratio. In addition, high level of soil compaction strongly affected the length of seminal and seminal adventitious roots, and the number and length of lateral roots developed on the seminal root. Along with the restriction of root growth, significant influences were observed in ψ, Fv/Fm and gas exchange. High soil compaction treatments resulted in decreased ψ, Fv/Fm, and photosynthetic rate, transpiration rate and stomatal conductance for both triticale and maize. Maize whose root growth was more heavily restricted by the soil compaction compared to triticale showed greater damages in physiological characteristics in leaves, while the impact on triticale was relatively small. The results indicated that damages in photosynthesis, water relation and shoot growth by soil compaction would be closely related to sensitivity of root systems architecture to high mechanical impedance of soil.

Impact of soil compaction and wetness on thermal properties of sloping vineyard soil

We assessed the effects of tilled ( C) and grass covered ( G) soil on the spatial distribution of the thermal properties in the vineyard interrow with consideration of areas corresponding to machinery traffic. To calculate the thermal conductivity ( λ) we used a statistical-physical model, heat capacity ( C v ) was calculated using formulae of de Vries and the thermal diffusivity ( α) was obtained from the quotient of λ and C v . The mean values of λ were generally greater under C than G in moist soil and the inverse was true in drier soil. The means of C v were greater in moist and lower in drier under G than C and those of α were slightly higher in G than in C. In general the spatial distributions of both λ and C v were similar to those of water content, however the distribution of α resembled well that of bulk density in both management systems.

Impact of soil compaction in sowing on development and crops of sugar beet

Putting together work operations minimizes the number of machine passes across the plot, which helps to reduce negative soil compaction and to save fuels. However, the combination of working operations also reflects in the increased weight of machines, which – on the other hand – can result exactly in soil compaction. This is why the potential adverse phenomenon can be compensated by using tyres with a larger contact surface with the base. In the case of sowing root crops, some problems may appear with the application of these tyres as a certain part of the stand has been sown in their track. The paper brings an assessment of the possibility to use twin assembly tyres on the tractor model Fendt 822 and on the sowing drill model Monosem NG plus with 18 drilling mechanisms. Parameters to be assessed were soil compaction, and the development of plants sown inside and outside the tractor track. Although the degree of soil compaction was higher in the tractor track, the biological characteristic of plants including yield reached more favourable criteria of assessment. The situation paradoxically resulted from the creation of more favourable moisture conditions in the soil.

The impact of soil compaction on soil aeration and fine root density of Quercus palustris

The soil around Quercus palustris trees, 30 cm (11.8 in) average diameter breast height (DBH) were treated by compaction (C) or C plus clay slurry (CS) treatments in November 1994 and repeated in May 1996. Soil oxygen diffusion rate (ODR), fine root density (FRD), DBH, twig growth, leaf area and dieback were monitored for 4 years beginning in 1996. Both compaction treatments significantly reduced ODR at 15 cm. Early each season, ODR was below the 0.20 g/cm 2/min threshold level reported to inhibit root growth in several species [Stolzy, L.H., Letey, J., 1964. Correlation of plant response to soil oxygen diffusion rates. Hilgardia 35, 567–576] for all treatments and depths. In summer each year, ODR was adequate in the shallow soils of all treatments, though often still significantly lower in compacted soils. At 30 cm, there were no consistent differences in ODR between compacted and uncompacted soil. Significant differences in FRD due to compaction treatments were inconsistent and limited to the upper 9 cm of soil in years 2 and 3. Reduced FRD in compacted soils may be a response to the reduced ODR in spring. There were no differences in DBH, twig growth, leaf area or dieback rating. Given the minimal difference in root growth, the lack of differences in top growth are understandable. This controlled study, and others preceding it, have failed to clearly show the underlying causes of tree decline and death commonly associated with soil compaction and addition of fill soil in real landscapes.

The impact of soil compaction on euedaphic Collembola

The impact of soil compaction on euedaphic Collembola

Short-term impact of forest soil compaction and organic matter removal on soil mesofauna density and oribatid mite diversity

This study examines the short-term impact of forest soil compaction and organic matter removal on soil mesofauna, in general, and oribatid mite species, in particular. Both soil compaction and organic matter removal reduced the density of soil mesofauna. Stem-only harvesting reduced total mesofauna densities by 20% relative to uncut forest values. A combination of whole-tree harvest and forest floor removal with heavy soil compaction significantly reduced total soil mesofauna densities by 93% relative to the uncut forest control. Removal of the forest floor represents a substantial loss of habitat for most soil mesofauna. The forest floor apparently buffered the mineral soil by limiting both the impact of soil compaction and fluctuations in soil temperature and moisture. The relative abundance of Prostigmata and Mesostigmata increased with treatment severity, whereas that of Oribatida decreased. Species richness of the oribatid mite fauna was reduced as the severity of treatments increased. The number of rare oribatid species (those representing <1% of the total oribatid mite sample) decreased by 40% or more relative to the uncut forest control. Evenness also decreased as treatment severity increased. Oppiella nova and Suctobelbella sp. near acutidens were the dominant oribatid species in both the forest floor and mineral soil, regardless of treatment. Soil compaction and organic matter removal significantly impacted the density and diversity of soil mesofauna and oribatid mite fauna in the short term at these study sites.

The impact of soil compaction on euedaphic Collembola

Tillage operations and field traffic may cause soil compaction and alter the pore characteristics in soil. These practices often lead to a reduction in habitable pore space for the soil mesofauna. In the present study the abundance of some euedaphic species of Collembola was investigated under a range of soil bulk densities normally found in agricultural soils. The study was performed using containers with defaunated soil that was compressed to six levels of bulk density in the range 1.02–1.56 g cm −3. One of the following species was added to a separate series: Mesaphorura macrochaeta, Protaphorura armata, and Folsomia fimetaria. The number of individuals and the concentration of ergosterol (used to estimate fungal biomass) were measured after each experiment and related to bulk density and pore size distribution. A series of experiments in which straw was added to the soil in order to increase microbial life was also included. Only F. fimetaria was used in the straw amended series. In the soil experiments without straw amendments, the numbers of M. macrochaeta and P. armata, were significantly reduced when bulk densities increased from 1.37 to 1.47 g cm −3. F. fimetaria did not exhibit any significant response to compaction. The ergosterol concentration was independent of bulk density. When straw was added, the abundance of F. fimetaria declined significantly with increasing bulk density from 1.21 g cm −3. The decline in collembolan numbers was probably due to the decline in coarse pores (>120 μm) because the ergosterol concentration was independent of bulk density. These results show that soil structure and decline in habitable pore space are the key parameters in the abundance of euedaphic Collembola in soil.

Environmental impacts of intensive deer farming in New Zealand - a review

The New Zealand deer industry is growing rapidly and the development of sustainable management practices for deer farming is becoming increasingly important. The main environmental issues facing the deer industry are the eff ects on soil and water quality, exacerba ted by the behaviour responses of deer to confinement (in particular fence pacing and wallowing). In addition, the projected increase in greenhouse gas emissions from deer farming from about 1.5% of the total emissions in 1990 to an estimated 7% in 2010 is of particular concern if the Kyoto Protocol is ratified. Although the potential effects of deer farming on the environment are well recognised, very little experimental work has qualified the extent of these impacts. The future of intensive deer farming in New Zealand will not only depend on the successful development of sustainable management practices, but also on the implementation and adoption of these practices, which will be influenced by the balance between the costs and the benefits to the New Zealand deer farmer. The development and adoption of sustainable management practices for deer farming requires quantification of rates of sediment, nutrient and faecal contaminant movement to waterways, the impact of soil compaction and greenhouse gas emissions, as well as an assessment of the economic implications. Keywords: deer farming, greenhouse gas emissions, nutrient losses, sediment losses, soil compaction, soil erosion, water quality

Effects of nature trails on ground vegetation and understory colonization of a patchy remnant forest in an urban domain

Effects of nature trails on understory vegetation was studied in a self recovering patchy forest remained in an urban sprawl of central Japan. An adverse impact of soil compaction at surface level, originating basically from human trampling, was found on root development and stem growth of understory colonizers implying a succession deterrence. Ground coverage was reduced with proliferated path web in trampled sites and a few species showed site preference. Management options such as demarcation of trek routes and their rotational use could help revitalize the colonization to further succession process.

Effects of soil compaction and tillage systems on uptake and losses of nutrients

In the framework of research on the environmental consequences of soil compaction, the impact of soil compaction and tillage systems on uptake and losses of nutrients, in particular nitrogen, are discussed. Evidence is presented to indicate interactive relationships between the amount of soil compaction, root growth, soil water and soil aeration status, and nutrient supply and uptake by plants. The importance of soil structure and pore size distribution in influencing the transport of nutrients in compacted soil is illustrated. Emphasis is given to the negative effects of soil compaction on components of the environment due to nutrient leaching, surface runoff and gaseous losses to the atmosphere.

Mechanisation of short rotation forestry

This paper is split into two distinct parts since it addresses two very different crops grown in North America and Europe. In North America short rotation forestry is being developed principally to generate a feedstock for the wood pulping industry and is typically single stem hardwood plantations grown for 6–10 years before harvest. In Europe by contrast, coppiced willow plantations are being grown as an energy crop and harvested on a 3–4 year cycle. In North America, the industry is being driven by the large pulp producing companies; plantations are designed to fit the local conditions and specialist mechanisation is generally not being used. Rather, the companies are using standard agricultural or forestry practices for planting and husbandry and using the crews which already exist to harvest the crop. This paper describes the type of plantations which are being used and the mechanisation which is being applied. In Europe, the coppice crops are grown commercially in Sweden and will shortly be planted on a commercial scale in the UK. In Sweden, the resulting wood fuel is fed into the many wood fired district heating plants and combined heat and power plants. In the UK, the majority of new planting will be used to fire power generation plants working on the gasification principle. Three plants have been given contracts to generate electricity under a premium price scheme and this could result in the planting of 8,000 ha of coppice. Sweden has lead the development of mechanisation for the crop and two harvesters are now considered to be commercial; they are based on existing machines for harvesting forage and sugar cane. Planters are also at the commercial stage of development and machines for weed control have been tested. This paper covers the machinery developments and discusses issues relevant to the mechanisation of the crop such as: whether to harvest as chips or as whole shoots (sticks), the impact of soil compaction, weed control and plantation layout.