Impact Of Parenthood Research Articles

The impact of parenthood on well-being: a qualitative study of mothers’ and fathers’ perceptions across European countries

Abstract Background Parenthood significantly impacts the well-being of mothers and fathers. Yet, their experiences may differ according to societal roles and expectations. Parenthood can bring joy and fulfillment, but also emotional strain, particularly for mothers. Fathers’ involvement in caregiving has been recognized as crucial for family well-being, but studies on its health impact remain scarce. This study analyzed mothers’ and fathers’ perceptions of how parenthood affected their personal and professional well-being. Methods We conducted 30 semi-structured interviews with Portuguese mothers and fathers living in Portugal, Sweden, Norway, Germany, the Netherlands, the UK, Spain, and Italy. Thematic content analysis was performed to analyze the interviews. Results After becoming parents, male interviewees reported career benefits such as higher pay and career growth due to increased workload, while female interviewees reported greater family overload that spilled over into their professional lives. In Portugal, women faced work-life conflict as they felt more competent than their male partners in providing care and maintained their full-time paid work. In countries like Germany and Spain, women assumed the role of main caregivers but reduced their work commitments, either by working fewer hours or leaving the workforce. Self-reported health declined for both after parenthood, but differently. Some fathers engaged in less healthy behaviors, resulting in weight gain. In contrast, mothers, particularly in Portugal, were more prone to express emotions such as guilt, pressure, and anxiety due to role conflicts as workers, mothers, and wives. Conclusions Traditional gender norms still shape parental roles in work and family life, differently affecting women’s and men’s well-being. To address gender inequalities in parenthood, equal access to supportive measures such as shared parental leave is needed, as well as flexible working arrangements and childcare services.

The indirect costs of motherhood and fatherhood: impacts on income, working hours, and perceived health across 32 European countries

Abstract Background Parenthood may affect men’s and women’s personal lives, professional careers, and well-being differently. In the last decades, structural modifications in gender norms, the labor market, and family-supporting policies have occurred, but with cross-country variations, even within European borders. This study aimed to update the estimates on the impact of parenthood on men’s and women’s income, working hours, and perceived health status, and better comprehend their variation across 32 European countries, using a longitudinal approach. Methods Data from the European Survey on Income and Living Conditions (2004-2020) were used to estimate the income variation and the likelihood of transitioning into a non-income status, less than 40 weekly hours, and less than very good health status, from one year before to one year after parenthood. Estimates were done by sex and country. Pooled effects were estimated using random effects meta-analysis. Results We found a short-term 29% income penalty for women and a 12% income premium for men after parenthood. Seventy percent of women who transitioned their status after motherhood shifted to work less than 40 hours per week while no effect was found for men. Regarding perceived health, no shifts were overall observed. A large cross-country heterogeneity was found. Conclusions Motherhood-related income penalties concurred with losses of employment and reductions of weekly working hours, while among men the income premiums were not necessarily coupled with transitions to employed status or 40 weekly working hours. The cross-country heterogeneity is, probably, multifactorial, depending on countries’ policies, norms, labor market, and social structure.

The long-term impact of parenthood on women and men’s income in 26 European countries

Abstract Background Historically, women’s roles were predominantly associated with motherhood, leading to significant career interruptions and lower incomes compared to men. As gender roles have evolved, as did labor policies protecting parents, it would be expected that income penalties in women and income premiums in men would attenuate, especially in the long term. This study aims to assess the association between the number of children and the income earned by women and men in older adulthood. Methods We used data from wave 8 of the Survey of Health, Ageing, and Retirement in Europe (SHARE), which includes 43,772 participants with 50 years old or over and their partners, living in 26 European countries. Multilevel analysis was employed to estimate the association between having children and the total, employment-related, and pensions-related incomes, adjusting for sociodemographic characteristics and clustering by country. Results The highest median annual total income was identified for individuals living in Bismarkian (€19,000) and Scandinavian countries (€17,708), more than twice the income earned in the European remaining countries. Having had children was associated with lower total income (OR = 0.870 for 1-2 children, OR = 0.773 for 3-5 children, OR = 0.666 for more than 5 children; p < 0.005), and women received lower total incomes (OR = 0.694; p < 0.001). These patterns were also found for employment- and pensions-related incomes. Conclusions There is a long-term negative effect of having had children, and of the number of children, on income, both employment and pension-related, but women continue to receive about 30% lower incomes than men. The adoption of comprehensive policies stimulating a more equal gender distribution of childrearing responsibilities, while protecting parenthood, along with recognizing caregiving responsibilities in pension calculations, could mitigate these disparities and promote gender equity and better living conditions at the older ages.

Assessing the health impacts of parenthood on people with cystic fibrosis: the HOPeCF prospective cohort protocol

IntroductionPeople with cystic fibrosis (CF) are living longer and healthier lives with a growing number considering and pursuing parenthood. The decision of whether to become a parent is complex for...

Baby Bumps in the Road: The Impact of Parenthood on Job Performance, Human Capital, and Career Advancement

Abstract This paper explores whether and why a maternal “child penalty” to earnings would emerge even without changes in employment and hours worked. Using a matched event study de-sign, we trace monthly changes in determinants of wages (job performance, human capital accumulation, and promotions). Data come from a usefully unusual setting with required multiyear employment and detailed personnel data: the United States Marine Corps. Mothers' job performance initially declines, and gaps in promotion grow through 24 months postbirth. Fathers' physical fitness performance drops somewhat but recovers. These patterns lead mothers to earn relatively lower wages, even absent changes in employment postbirth.

Impact of parenthood on eating pathology in young adults.

Few studies investigated parenthood as a predictor of eating pathology in young adulthood. We studied the association between parenthood, in the first year after becoming a parent and beyond, and eating pathology. Furthermore, we examined whether moving in together with a partner affected this association. This study used data of four measurement waves from TRAILS (Tracking Adolescents' Individual Lives Survey), a Dutch community cohort study (N = 2229) from preadolescence into young adulthood. The Eating Disorder Diagnostic Scale (EDDS), a measure to assess eating pathology, was assessed at ages 22, 26, and 29. Risk for eating disorder was assessed at age 19. Pregnant participants were excluded. Parenthood was not associated with an increase of eating pathology in the first year after becoming a parent and beyond. Instead, parents were more likely to report being free from eating pathology symptoms compared to childless individuals (OR 2.07, 95% CI: 1.11-3.84). Among those who reported experiencing at least one eating problem, parenthood was not associated with the number of eating problems. Moving in together with a partner did not alter the association between parenthood and eating problems and neither did this association differ between males and females. Parenthood in young adulthood was associated with a decreased risk of having eating pathology. In this longitudinal study among young adults, parenthood was not associated with the development of eating pathology.

The gendered impact of parenthood on job-related training participation in Germany and the United Kingdom

Abstract Recent studies highlight the role of parenthood in perpetuating persistent gender inequality in the labour market. We examine whether the transition to parenthood influences job-related training participation. This study uses fixed-effects models and longitudinal data from the German National Educational Panel Study (starting cohort 6, 2010–2021) and Understanding Society: The UK Household Longitudinal Study (2010–2019). Our findings show that women’s job-related training participation decreases following parenthood in both countries, but that this decline is steeper in Germany and persists beyond the early stage of parenthood. Furthermore, our mediation analysis shows that parental leave is one of the main drivers of the motherhood penalty in job-related training in both countries. In contrast, when men have a first child, it has a small negative effect on training participation levels in Germany and no effect in the United Kingdom. This study sheds light on the gendered impact of the transition to parenthood on job-related training participation and how the country context influences these relationships.

Balancing Work, Life, and Care Responsibilities in Academia: The Male Perspective

Several studies have shown the impact of parenthood on academic careers and the existence of a motherhood penalty. However, fathers' experiences of reconciling caring responsibilities with academic work are less studied. The article explores the representations of fatherhood and men's reconciliation practices in Italian academia. The analysis is based on 64 semi-structured interviews with male associate professors and postdoc researchers in various Italian universities, working in STEM and SSH departments. The results indicate that, in the early stages of the academic career, men similarly to women tend to postpone parenthood or to "choose" not to have children. Those men who have children, instead, enact different models of fatherhood that we have called the ‘absent father', the ‘negotiator' and the ‘present father', without significant differences among disciplines or academic positions. However, only a minority of fathers are closely involved in childcare, and they experience penalties and work-related stress. The article gives insights into possible policies to support the work-life balance of the (still rare) involved academic fathers and to encourage the others to share care duties more equally with their partners.

Parenthood and Gender in Russian Academia

Based on data from a survey conducted in November 2021 involving 2,395 economists working in the academic field, the impact of parenthood on both mothers and fathers on elements of academic careers, such as defending a doctoral thesis and publishing productivity, is being analyzed.
 
 It has been observed that men successfully balance the arrival of their first child with the defense of their doctoral thesis, while for most women, these events occur sequentially with a time gap. Furthermore, the strategies for combining parenthood with building a professional career among young respondents differ from those of their older colleagues. The older the woman in our sample, the more likely she is to prioritize the "child first, then defense" strategy. Over time, priorities have shifted, and now women are more inclined to postpone childbirth.
 
 Using data from the elibrary.ru library, indicators of respondents' publication productivity were obtained, indicating that, on average, men publish more works indexed in RINC and the RINC core. A similar publication gap has been identified in other countries, with researchers suggesting unequal burdens that women and men bear during parenthood as a possible explanation for this gap. The results of the study do not provide grounds to consider the presence or absence of children as a significant factor explaining this gap. The author considers self-selection among respondents due to barriers within the academic environment and differences in career goals as possible reasons for the publication gap. Both women with and without children are relatively more oriented towards a teaching career, and the presence of a child may strengthen this tendency.

Impact of parenthood on building patient-physician relationship.

Introduction. La relation médecin-patient, qui conditionne l’efficacité du soin, est indispensable en médecine générale et constitue un enjeu de la formation initiale des étudiants de 3e cycle. Parmi ces étudiants, certains sont parents et construisent leur relation médecin-patient en parallèle du lien parent-enfant. Notre objectif était d’explorer l’impact de la parentalité sur la construction de la relation médecin-patient chez les parents étudiants en 3e cycle de médecine générale. Méthode. Étude qualitative avec approche par théorisation ancrée. Entretiens semi-dirigés auprès de parents étudiants en médecine générale, rattachés à la faculté de médecine de Toulouse. Résultats. Treize entretiens ont été réalisés et analysés. Des modifications conscientes ou inconscientes s’observaient à des degrés variables dans différents aspects de la relation médecin-patient : confiance des patients et confiance en soi des étudiants, disponibilité physique et psychique de l’étudiant pour les patients, communication, empathie et distance relationnelle. La construction de la relation médecin-patient chez le parent étudiant en médecine générale était comparable à la progression d’un funambule, en équilibre entre vie professionnelle et vie personnelle. Discussion. La parentalité impacterait la construction de la relation médecin-patient des étudiants parents dans ses trois dimensions. La pratique parentale (ensemble des soins apportés par un parent à son enfant) permettrait de développer des compétences relationnelles. L’expérience parentale (expérience psychologique de « devenir parent ») modifierait la capacité empathique et bouleverserait les priorités de vie de l’étudiant. Le statut social de parent légitimerait la capacité de l’étudiant à endosser la responsabilité médicale, ce qui interroge la crédibilité du médecin étudiant de façon générale.

Less Is (Often) More: Number of Children and Health Among Older Adults in 24 Countries.

Previous evidence about the impact of parenthood on health for older adults is mixed, perhaps due to variation in number of children and context. Higher numbers of children could lead to support or strain, depending on individual and country contexts. Yet, no studies currently exist that examine associations between the number of children and several health indicators among older adults across multiple global regions. We analyze cross-sectional data (1992-2017) of 166,739 adults aged 50+ across 24 countries from the Health and Retirement Study family of surveys to document associations between the number of children, treated as a categorical variable, and 5 health outcomes (self-rated health, activities of daily living limitations, instrumental activities of daily living limitations, chronic conditions, and depression). We perform multivariable analyses by estimating logistic regression models for each country and each outcome. Multiple comparisons between categories of number of children revealed at least 1 significant difference in each country, and a majority of significant differences indicated those with more children had poorer health. The risk of poorer health for parents of multiple children was observed in 15 countries, but in some countries, fewer children predict poorer health. The greatest number of differences was identified for depression and chronic conditions, and very few for functional limitations. We observe a greater probability that more children are associated with poorer health in later life, especially for chronic conditions and depression. However, a universal global or regional pattern could not be identified. These findings raise new questions about how country contexts shape fertility and health.

Gendered Divergence in the Impact of Parenthood on Wages: The Role of Family Size, Human Capital and Working Time

While gender pay disparity is a frequently researched area, few have focused on how parenthood and family size impact the wages of mothers and fathers together. The purpose of this study is therefore to take a broader view of this pivotal topic, one which has continued relevance as governments and organisations seek to advance gender equality. The findings show clear gendered divergence in the impact of parenthood on wages, with ‘motherhood wage penalties’ and ‘fatherhood wage premiums’ in both annual and hourly wage. The widest gap in earnings between women and men occurs at three or more children even when human capital and labour market selectivity factors are controlled for. For women, the largest penalty occurs at one and three or more children while for men, having two children represents the peak point in terms of wage gains to parenthood. Accounting for working time through hourly wage estimations narrows but does not eliminate parental wage gaps, pointing to other factors such as occupational segregation.

Stigma, Secrecy and Masculine Norms: A Systematic Review of How Perinatal Mental Illness in Men and Their Partners Is Experienced by Males

AimsBackground: In recent years, fathers have become increasingly involved in pregnancy and childcare and the concept of paternal perinatal mental illness (PMI) has gained research interest. There has been increased recognition of the impact of parenthood on the mental health of males, particularly in first time fathers where feelings of helplessness and marginalisation are common. Prevalence of paternal PMI is thought to be 10–16%, with higher risk demonstrated when their partner too experiences PMI. The importance of this topic was highlighted in the NHS long term plan, which recognised the disparity in service provision between males and females and the need to address this. Aim: To conduct a systematic review to establish the knowledge, beliefs, and experiences of males with PMI and whose partners had PMI, and to understand the barriers associated with help-seeking for paternal PMI.MethodsFive databases including EMBASE, Web of Science, Ovid MEDLINE, Scopus and PsycINFO were searched for qualitative studies investigating the experiences of males affected by PMI personally or through their partner's illness. The research question and inclusion criteria were determined using the PICOSS (population, intervention, comparison, outcome, setting, study design) method. 11 studies met criteria for inclusion and were appraised for quality using the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme and Joanna Briggs Institute Qualitative checklists. Evidence was synthesised using thematic analysis and study quality and risk of bias were assessed using the Assessing the Methodological Quality of Systematic Reviews (AMSTAR 2) checklist and Risk of Bias in Systematic Reviews (ROBIS) too.Results5 main themes and 17 sub-themes were identified, and demonstrated lack of knowledge and preparation for fatherhood, and distress and isolation experienced by males with PMI. Males were reluctant to seek help, and factors including stigma and lack of awareness regarding PMI and available support services were identified as barriers. The option to remain anonymous, flexibility of appointments and an emphasis on peer support were considered facilitators to engagement.ConclusionUnhelpful and potentially damaging stereotypes regarding masculinity and PMI still exist, prohibit help-seeking for PMI and promote the marginalisation of males in perinatal settings. Support for males with PMI is warranted but lacking, and effective communication and education regarding paternal PMI for both professionals and the public is needed to allow successful expansion of services to include males.

Taking the long view: Long‐term couple earnings arrangements across the transition to parenthood

AbstractThis paper examines household earnings arrangements and parenthood. Previous research has shown that parenthood is associated with a motherhood wage penalty with women withdrawing from the labour market or reducing their work hours. But few studies have examined within‐couple relative earnings and breadwinning arrangements across the transition to parenthood. We identify three types of households—“female‐breadwinner households” (where women earn more than 60 per cent of the couple's annual labour income); “male‐breadwinner households” (where women earn less than 40 per cent of the joint income); and “equal‐earner households” (where women earn 40 per cent to 60 per cent of the joint income). Using longitudinal data from the Household Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia (HILDA) Survey and fixed effects models, we find a substantial decrease in the percentage of couples in equal‐earner households in the year prior to and after parenthood that is largely replaced by an increase in the percentage in male‐breadwinner households. We observe little return to pre‐parenthood earnings arrangements for equal‐earner and male‐breadwinner households. For female‐breadwinner households, we observe a gradual return to pre‐parenthood arrangements. These results provide evidence that parenthood is a major milestone contributing to gender inequality and highlight the importance of policies for reducing the impact of parenthood on women's earnings.

"Find ways to work parenting into cystic fibrosis": A PhotoVoice exploration of being a parent and having CF.

As more people with cystic fibrosis (CF) consider their reproductive futures, the impact of parenthood on CF must be better understood. In the context of chronic disease, deciding if, when, and how to become a parent is complex. Little research has investigated how parents with CF balance their role as parents with its associated health impacts and demands of CF. PhotoVoice is a research methodology that utilizes photography to generate discussion about community issues. We recruited parents with CF with at least 1 child <10 years old and divided them into threecohorts. Each cohort met fivetimes. Cohorts developed photography prompts, took photographs between sessions, and reflected on the photos at subsequent meetings. At the final meeting, participants selected 2-3 pictures, wrote captions, and as a group organized the photographs into thematic groups. Secondary thematic analysis identified metathemes. Participants (n = 18) generated a total of 202 photographs. Each cohort identified 3-4 themes (n = 10) which secondary analysis grouped into 3metathemes: (1) It is important for parents with CF to pay attention to the joyful aspects of parenting and to cultivate positive experiences; (2) Parenting with CF requires balancing your own needs with those of your child, and creativity and flexibility can be key; (3) Parenting with CF consists of competing priorities and expectations often with no clear "correct" choice. Parents with CF identified unique challenges to their existence as both parents and patients as well as ways in which parenting has enhanced their lives.

Perceptions of Parental Leave and Parenthood among Program Directors and Residents in Radiation Oncology

<h3>Purpose/Objective(s)</h3> Radiation oncology residents (ROR) face a narrow fertility window while completing a demanding training program. Family planning decisions are often impacted by concerns over perceptions of faculty, co-trainees, and future employers. There is limited data objectively defining these perceptions in medical training and none within radiation oncology (RO). We aim to describe the perspectives of RO program directors (PD) and ROR on parental leave and parenthood in training. <h3>Materials/Methods</h3> Contact information was obtained from FRIEDA. Surveys were distributed to all eligible PDs with a request to forward a parallel survey to trainees. Social media links for both surveys were shared on a social media platform. Descriptive statistics were gathered using survey data. <h3>Results</h3> Surveys were completed for 16 PDs including 5 women and 14 parents and 61 ROR including 35 women and 25 parents. As a PD, 14 PDs had pregnant residents in their program. Only 1 PD was unsure if there was a maternity leave policy at their institution, 3 were unsure about paternity leave, and 13 were unsure about fertility services. In comparison, 15 ROR were unsure if there was a maternity leave policy, 20 were unsure about paternity leave, and 34 were unsure about fertility services. 98% of residents and 100% of PDs felt it would be valuable to have formal policies in place. 47% of ROR felt their program was more or much more supportive than others at their institution with 38% feeling as supported and 15% feeling less supported. In contrast, 93% of PDs felt they were more or much more supportive. 22 ROR felt pressured to delay starting a family, most commonly pressure put on themselves followed by faculty and co-residents. 40% of non-parent residents (NPR) would have children if not in medicine with 89% of women ROR expressing concern about declining fertility. Among PDs, 20% felt that parenthood had a negative impact on the overall education of women and man residents. In terms of academic productivity, 40% of PDs felt parenthood had a negative impact on women residents compared to 27% for man residents. Among NPR, 89% felt that parenthood had a negative impact on the overall education of women residents compared to 66% for man residents. Similarly, 100% of NPR felt that parenthood negatively impacted women residents' academic productivity as compared to 71% of man residents. <h3>Conclusion</h3> Within RO, most PDs are aware of parental leave policies at their institution but are less so for fertility services. Residents are less familiar with these policies. Most ROR feel supported by their PDs, however there is a discordance between the level of support noted by ROR and PDs. The perceived negative impact of parenthood is greater for women ROR than men. Additional initiatives should focus on increasing transparency of parental leave policies and supporting parent trainees to ensure they are academically and clinically successful while balancing the important role of parents.

The influence of sleep and movement on mental health and life satisfaction during the transition to parenthood

ObjectivesThis study assessed whether sleep and physical activity impact mental health and life satisfaction across the transition to parenthood. This study assessed the impact of parenthood on mental health of new parents and parents expecting their second child, and whether change in mental health occurred dyadically across couples. DesignLongitudinal 12-month study. ParticipantsOne hundred and fifty-seven couples (N = 314) between the ages of 25 and 40, who were not expecting to have a child (n = 102), expecting their first child (n = 136), or expecting their second child (n = 76) were recruited. MeasurementsParticipants completed measures at baseline, 6 months, and 12 months. Sleep was assessed with how often participants met sleep guidelines (7-9 hours). Physical activity was measured objectively via accelerometers. Mental health was measured using 6 items from the short form-12 Quality of Life Survey. Life satisfaction was assessed with the Satisfaction with Life Scale (5 items). ResultsMental health was not predicted by physical activity but was predicted by sleep. Sleep at 6 months was positively related to mental health at 6 months (β = 0.156, p < .001), and sleep at 12 months was positively related to mental health at 12 months (β = 0.170, p < .001). The change in mental health did not occur dyadically: mental health increased for women but not for men across groups. Mental health was positively related to life satisfaction at 6 months (β = 0.338, p < .001) and 12-months (β = 0.277, p < .001). ConclusionsFor new and established parents, getting sufficient sleep plays an important role in mental health and, in turn, life satisfaction

Merging Motherhood and Medicine: A Qualitative Study Exploring Barriers and Enablers to Motherhood Among Australian Female Doctors

Background: Despite the increasing ‘feminisation’ of the Australian medical workforce, female doctors remain under-represented in leadership positions, many specialty areas, and renumeration levels. A key factor implicated in this disparity is the unequal impact of parenthood on mothers. Australian research on this issue is lacking. Aim: To identify the barriers and enablers experienced by Australian female doctors, when combining motherhood with a medical career. Method: Semi-structured telephone interviews were conducted with 18 female Australian physician mothers, during March and May 2020. Interview data were examined using thematic analysis to extract key themes. Results: Six key barriers and seven key enablers were identified. Barriers (B1-6) largely reflected structural and cultural issues operating within health services and the wider medical profession, specifically the (B1) experience of working in medicine; (B2) demands of postgraduate specialty training; (B3) attitudes towards mothers in medicine; (B4) gender inequality; (B5) insufficient entitlements and support; and (B6) competing priorities, conflicting roles. Enablers (E1-7) were predominantly personal and interpersonal supports relating to (E1) supportive partnerships; (E2) non-traditional gender roles; (E3) capacity to outsource; (E4) doctors supporting doctors; (E5) flexible work arrangements; (E6) increasing acceptance and support; and (E7) capacity to combine career and family. Conclusion: This was the first Australian qualitative study to explore motherhood experiences among female doctors. The results indicate that Australian physician-mothers encounter considerable structural and cultural barriers during all stages of motherhood. To facilitate motherhood in medicine, further research is needed to inform policy development and support provisions within Australian health systems.

Trainee and program director perspectives of parental leave and parenthood in oncologic specialties.

11051 Background: Delays in pregnancy exacerbate infertility. Thus, trainees are forced to make complex family planning decisions while juggling all aspects of training. In addition to a lack of parental leave and financial constraints, trainees are often concerned with the perceptions of leave and parenthood. Two single specialty surveys found that most program directors (PDs) felt parenthood negatively impacted trainee performance, disproportionately for women. We aim to understand PD and trainee perspectives of parental leave and parenthood in oncologic trainees. Methods: Contact information for PDs in oncologic specialties was gathered from FRIEDA. Surveys were distributed to all eligible PDs with a request to forward a parallel survey to their trainees. Social media links for both surveys were shared on Twitter. Tests of association for descriptive analyses included Fisher's exact test, Chi-square test, or the Mantel-Haenszel Chi-Square test, as appropriate. All computations were performed using SAS version 9.4. Results: 195 PDs and 286 trainees completed the survey with 49% and 56% female and 89% and 41% parent respondents, respectively. Per PDs, 73% of programs have a maternity leave policy, 48% have a paternity leave policy, and 5% have a fertility services policy. PDs and non-parent trainees (NPTs) rated the negative impact of parenthood on overall education (p &lt; 0.001 for PDs, p &lt; 0.001 for NPTs) and academic productivity (p &lt; 0.001 for PDs, p &lt; 0.001 for NPTs) as higher for women trainees than men trainees. PDs and NPTs also rated the burden of parental leave on co-trainees as greater for women trainees as compared to men trainees (p &lt; 0.001 for PDs, p &lt; 0.001 for NPTs). Among PDs, no significant differences by gender or specialty were found in advising for or against parenthood in training, but PDs in surgical specialties reported providing less support for trainees starting a family (p &lt; 0.001) and trainees in surgical specialties reported being less supported (p &lt; 0.001). Women trainees were more likely than men trainees to indicate that they would have started a family sooner if not in medicine (p &lt; 0.001). 89% of parent trainees would choose to have children in training again, and 84% would recommend parenthood in training. Conclusions: Although many programs have parental leave policies, a substantial number continue to lack them. Concerns about negative perceptions of parenthood by trainees are valid, particularly for women who are significantly more likely to be seen as having their education and academic productivity impacted by parenthood. In addition, specialty choice impacts the support given to trainees as they start families. Despite these barriers, the vast majority of parent trainees would still choose to have children in training and recommend this path to fellow trainees. Additional initiatives to normalize and support family planning in medical training for interested trainees are warranted.

Parenthood and political engagement

This paper analyzes the impact of parenthood on political engagement using the longitudinal British survey data and a repeated cross-sectional European Social survey. I construct a political engagement measure by applying confirmatory factor analysis to observable indicators of several different aspects of political engagement. Then, I estimate the impact of becoming a parent on political engagement based on an event study around the birth of an individual’s first child, using UK data. The results indicate that having children reduces the political engagement of female parents but does not significantly affect the political engagement of male parents. The impact on women is temporary and disappears several years after the birth of their first child. The analysis of the impact of additional children on political engagement suggests that women’s political engagement is reduced by the fact of becoming a mother rather than by the number of children. The results are confirmed using repeated cross-sectional data for European regions, controlling for fixed regional characteristics. The policy implications of these findings are discussed.