Impact Of Habitat Loss Research Articles

Which birds have the most to lose? an analysis of bird species’ feeding habitat in changing Australian landscapes

Australia has lost vast areas of its natural vegetation through agriculture and urbanization, resulting in the area of suitable habitat for many Australian bird species being greatly diminished. Given the geographical and ecological biases in anthropogenic land use, the impact of habitat loss now and into the future may be disproportionately high for some species, threatening their long-term persistence. Such changes are occurring rapidly, and habitat loss needs to be monitored dynamically to prevent extinction. To monitor changes in available unmodified species habitat, we use species’ area of feeding habitat (AFH), which represents the area of habitat within a species’ range with vegetation matching their feeding requirements. We analysed the past, current and future threats of habitat modification for 467 Australian bird species by calculating AFH across three time periods: pre-colonization, current (2020), and a projected future scenario (2100). These values were used to identify species subject to substantial habitat loss due to urbanization and agriculture and delineate predictors of such losses. Most species had experienced habitat loss since colonization (n = 442, 95%), and species that had already experienced considerable habitat loss were more likely to lose habitat into the future. Species with particular habitat associations (e.g., Mallee), were also more prone to greater proportions of habitat lost. The results highlight the utility of AFH and emphasize the importance of protecting what habitat remains for the species with highly depleted geographic ranges, noting that those that have experienced the most loss of unmodified habitat are the most likely to lose more unmodified habitat under future conditions.

The impact of habitat loss and fragmentation on biodiversity in global protected areas

Protected areas (PAs) serve as effective means for biodiversity conservation but face threats from habitat loss and fragmentation. Current research on the impact of habitat loss or habitat fragmentation on biodiversity in PAs mostly focuses on individual PA or regional scales. At the global scale, the extent of habitat loss and fragmentation in PAs and their effects on biodiversity remains unclear. Therefore, we investigated the degree of habitat loss and fragmentation in global PAs from 2000 to 2020, analyzed the impact of habitat loss and fragmentation on biodiversity in PAs, identified hotspot PAs of severe habitat loss or fragmentation, and highlighted critically endangered species within these PAs. Our study reveals that, between 2000 and 2020, 19 % of global PAs experienced habitat loss, and 34 % experienced habitat fragmentation, with large PAs and South American tropical PAs exhibiting the most severe levels of habitat loss and fragmentation. The impact of habitat loss and fragmentation on biodiversity was most significant in small PAs and African tropical PAs. There are 10 global hotspot PAs of habitat loss or fragmentation, posing a serious threat to the survival of endangered species within PAs. Biodiversity conservation remains a prominent research focus globally, and the issues of habitat loss and fragmentation in PAs may impact the achievement of the COP15 biodiversity conservation goals. Therefore, this study aims to provide data support and scientific guidance for the management and development of global PAs.

The impact of habitat loss and population fragmentation on genomic erosion

Habitat loss and population fragmentation pose severe threats to biodiversity and the survival of many species. Population isolation and the decline in effective population size lead to increased genetic drift and inbreeding. In turn, this reduces neutral diversity, and it also affects the genetic load of deleterious mutations. Here, we analyse the effect of such genomic erosion by designing a spatially explicit, individual based model in SLiM, simulating the effects of the recorded habitat loss in Mauritius over the past ~ 250 years. We show that the loss of neutral diversity (genome-wide heterozygosity) was barely noticeable during the first 100 years of habitat loss. Changes to the genetic load took even more time to register, and they only became apparent circa 200 years after the start of habitat decline. Although a considerable number of deleterious mutations were lost by drift, others increased in frequency. The masked load was thus converted into a realised load, which compromised individual fitness and population viability after much of the native habitat had been lost. Importantly, genomic erosion continued after the metapopulation had stabilised at low numbers. Our study shows that historic habitat loss can pose a sustained threat to populations also in future generations, even without further habitat loss. The UN’s Decade on Ecosystem Restoration needs to lead to transformative change to save species from future extinction, and this requires the urgent restoration of natural habitats.

The impact of habitat loss on molecular signatures of coevolution between an iconic butterfly (Alcon blue) and its host plant (Marsh gentian).

Habitat loss is threatening natural communities worldwide. Small and isolated populations suffer from inbreeding and genetic drift, which jeopardize their long-term survival and adaptive capacities. However, the consequences of habitat loss for reciprocal coevolutionary interactions remain poorly studied. In this study, we investigated the effects of decreasing habitat patch size and connectivity associated with habitat loss on molecular signatures of coevolution in the Alcon blue butterfly (Phengaris alcon) and its most limited host, the marsh gentian (Gentiana pneumonanthe). Because reciprocal coevolution is characterized by negative frequency-dependent selection as a particular type of balancing selection, we investigated how signatures of balancing selection vary along a gradient of patch size and connectivity, using single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). We found that signatures of coevolution were unaffected by patch characteristics in the host plants. On the other hand, more pronounced signatures of coevolution were observed in both spatially isolated and in large Alcon populations, together with pronounced spatial variation in SNPs that are putatively involved in coevolution. These findings suggest that habitat loss can facilitate coevolution in large butterfly populations through limiting swamping of locally beneficial alleles by maladaptive ones. We also found that allelic richness (Ar) of the coevolutionary SNPs is decoupled from neutral Ar in the butterfly, indicating that habitat loss has different effects on coevolutionary as compared with neutral processes. We conclude that this specialized coevolutionary system requires particular conservation interventions aiming at generating a spatial mosaic of both connected and of isolated habitat to maintain coevolutionary dynamics.

The impact of habitat loss on pollination services for a threatened dune endemic plant.

Habitat loss is currently a major threat to biodiversity, affecting species interactions, such as plant-pollinator interactions. This is particularly important in self-incompatible plants relying on pollinators to reproduce and sustain their populations. Here, we evaluated how habitat loss affects the pollination system, plant individual-pollinator species interaction network, and plant reproductive fitness of the self-incompatible Jasione maritima var. sabularia, a threatened taxon from dune systems. This plant is a pollinator generalist, visited by 108 species from distinct taxonomic groups. Results suggest that increasing habitat loss led to a significant decline in pollinator richness, increased pollen limitation, and a decrease in reproductive fitness of J. maritima var. sabularia. Visitation rate per individual did not significantly change with available area, indicating that the quality of pollen differed across populations. The topology of the network between J. maritima var. sabularia individuals and its pollinator species did not change, which may be attributed to the stability in the core of pollinator species. This suggests that the lower fitness of plants with increasing habitat degradation may be explained not only by the lower richness of peripheral pollinators but also by the genetic structure of the plant populations, as there is a possible higher transference of less quality pollen by pollinators, ultimately compromising the persistence of plant populations. Our study highlights the need of future studies to integrate the fine details provided by individual-level networks, which will increase our understanding of the pattern of species interactions and its consequences for the fitness of threatened plant populations.

Habitat loss causes long extinction transients in small trophic chains

Transients in ecology are extremely important since they determine how equilibria are approached. The debate on the dynamic stability of ecosystems has been largely focused on equilibrium states. However, since ecosystems are constantly changing due to climate conditions or to perturbations driven by the climate crisis or anthropogenic actions (habitat destruction, deforestation, or defaunation), it is important to study how dynamics can proceed till equilibria. This article investigates the dynamics and transient phenomena in small food chains using mathematical models. We are interested in the impact of habitat loss in ecosystems with vegetation undergoing facilitation. We provide a dynamical study of a small food chain system given by three trophic levels: primary producers, i.e., vegetation, herbivores, and predators. Our models reveal how habitat loss pushes vegetation towards tipping points, how the presence of herbivores in small habitats could promote ecosystem’s extinction (ecological meltdown), or how the loss of predators produce a cascade effect (trophic downgrading). Mathematically, these systems exhibit many of the possible local bifurcations: saddle-node, transcritical, Andronov–Hopf, together with a global bifurcation given by a heteroclinic bifurcation. The associated transients are discussed, from the ghost dynamics to the critical slowing down tied to the local and global bifurcations. Our work highlights how the increase of ecological complexity (trophic levels) can imply more complex transitions. This article shows how the pernicious effects of perturbations (i.e., habitat loss or hunting pressure) on ecosystems could not be immediate, producing extinction delays. These theoretical results suggest the possibility that some ecosystems could be currently trapped into the (extinction) ghost of their stable past.

Cascading extinctions as a hidden driver of insect decline

1. The decline in insect abundance and diversity observed in many ecosystems is of major concern because of the long‐term consequences for ecosystem function and stability.2. Species in ecological communities are connected through interactions forming complex networks. Therefore, initial extinctions can cause further species losses through co‐extinctions and extinction cascades, where single extinctions can lead to waves of secondary extinctions. Such knock‐on effects can multiply the initial impact of disturbances, thereby largely adding to the erosion of biodiversity. However, our knowledge of their importance for the current insect decline is hampered because secondary extinctions are challenging to both detect and predict.3. In this review, we bring together theory and knowledge about secondary extinctions in the light of the main drivers of insect decline. We evaluate potential and evidence for cascading extinction for the different drivers and identify major pathways. By providing selected examples we discuss how habitat loss, pollution, species invasions, climate change and overexploitation can cause cascading extinctions. We argue that habitat loss and pollution in particular have the largest potential for such extinctions by changing community structure, the physical environment, and community robustness.4. Overall, cascading extinction are part of an ecosystems' response to anthropogenic drivers but are so far not explicitly measured in their contribution when evaluating biodiversity loss. This knowledge is necessary to predict biodiversity loss and find strategies to buffer against the devastating long‐term impact of habitat loss, pollution, species invasions, and climate change.

Changing pollinator communities along a disturbance gradient in the Sundarbans mangrove forest: A case study on Acanthus ilicifolius and Avicennia officinalis

The Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world and a UNESCO world heritage site has been facing increasing pressure of habitat destruction. Yet, no study has been conducted to test how human disturbances are affecting plant-pollinator interactions in this unique ecosystem. Hence, we aimed to provide the first insight into the impact of habitat loss and human disturbances on the pollinator communities in the Sundarbans. We selected 12 sites in the North-Western region of the Sundarbans, along a gradient of decreasing habitat loss and human activities from forest fragments near human settlements to continuous pristine forest, where we studied insect pollinators of two mangrove plant species, Acanthus ilicifolius and Avicennia officinalis. Our results show that different pollinator groups responded to the disturbance gradient differently. For example, the abundance of Apis dorsata, one of the three local species of honey bees, increased gradually from the village area towards the deep pristine forest. On the other hand, A. cerana and A. florea were found in the village sites and completely absent in the deep forest. Although pollinator community composition changed along the disturbance gradient, their efficacy in pollination did not seem to be significantly affected. However, lower plant diversity and low understory plant cover in the forest patches nearby the village indicated that human disturbances not only affected pollinator community composition but also played a major negative role in the regeneration of the forest. Our study provides first insights into plant-pollinator interactions in the Sundarbans and demonstrates that more research is needed to imply conservation strategies for this unique habitat.

Steppe islands in a sea of fields: Where island biogeography meets the reality of a severely transformed landscape

AbstractQuestionsSteppes are among the most transformed and fragmented biomes in the world, but studies on the impact of habitat loss and fragmentation on these zonal grasslands are scarce. In many regions, steppe has survived only on small habitat islands, particularly on kurgans (ancient burial mounds) surrounded by intensive croplands. We asked how the size of kurgans, their isolation and other landscape and local factors influence their species richness.LocationSouthern Ukraine.MethodsWe recorded all species of vascular plants and assessed local (area, steepness, disturbance level), landscape (distance to the nearest habitat patch, habitat amount in the surroundings, surrounding type, distance to settlements) and climatic (precipitation) conditions of 112 kurgans. We analysed species–area relationships (SARs) for total richness, habitat specialists and generalists. Then, we assessed importance of environmental factors in explaining the residuals of the SAR models.ResultsPatch area explained more than 50% of variance in total and specialist species richness. The slopes of the power function SAR (z‐values) were higher for specialists than for generalists. Connectivity measures (the distance to the nearest large habitat enclave and share of habitat in the surroundings) were more important for richness of specialists than for that of generalists, which were more controlled by the kurgan's surroundings.ConclusionsWe found that for specialist species the steppe “islands” follow the theory of island biogeography closely, but less so for generalist species. Combined with the revealed importance of connectivity for specialist species richness, we conclude that the conservation value of the kurgans in the long term likely can only be achieved with larger steppe areas in the surroundings.

Assessment of growth patterns of amphidromous fish larvae in alternative estuarine nursery habitats along a developed coast

The placement of artificial structures in coastal areas can adversely impact the life histories of larval and juvenile fish by reducing suitable nursery areas. However, little is known about the responses of them to such habitat loss. The ayu Plecoglossus altivelis altivelis is an amphidromous fish that spends its early ontogenetic stages in suitable nurseries, the surf zone, within 2 km from river mouths. To evaluate the possible impact of habitat loss on larval and juvenile ayu, we collected 50 juveniles from the Takahashi River, Okayama, Japan, on 19 April 2018, where more than 95% of the coastal outlet area is covered with artificial structures. Otolith Sr/Ca- and increment analyses were conducted to examine the habitat use and growth rates of each individual. We also collected nine larvae on 27 December 2018 from a semi-natural surf zone, which is located 5 km from the Takahashi River mouth, in order to evaluate their growth rate. The 50 juveniles spent approximately one-third of their marine life stage in estuaries with brackish water, suggesting that the estuaries are the only nursery grounds remaining in this area. Among the 50 juveniles, specimens that experienced lower salinities showed higher growth rates and larger body sizes in the larval stage (1–80 days old). However, a large variation in growth rates was also observed among the specimens that grew in estuaries, probably owing to environmental instability in the area. While the difference was not statistically significant, the nine larvae from the semi-natural surf zone showed higher growth rates than the 50 juveniles from the Takahashi River. Our results indicate that the estuaries can be an alternative habitat, but that they might not be a better habitat than the regular surf zone habitat.

Integrating habitat risk assessment and connectivity analysis in ranking habitat patches for conservation in protected areas

Ecological habitat connectivity, human disturbances, and habitat availability are strongly related to each other for distribution and abundance of species. In Varjin protected area, Iran, habitat loss due to human pressures is the main factor in the rapid decline of Ovis orientalis (wild sheep) population. In this research, we proposed a framework to analyze the connectivity of the mountainous landscape by considering human disturbances. The integrated framework is aimed at obtaining a procedure that can be used to rank individual habitat patches for conservation priorities. We identified patches with high-risk values using the InVEST model. By applying patch removal techniques and in tandem with a fragmentation scenario, an analysis of the network-based modeling connectivity metrics was performed within and among the habitat patches. We evaluated the local and habitat connectivity by calculating Betweenness Centrality (dBC) as a network metric and Probability of Connectivity (dPC) as the habitat availability metric. Average dBC and dPC metrics decreased by 62.41 % and 8.23 %, respectively by applying risk values. Results demonstrated that habitat patches in the east and southeast of the protected area show the biggest difference value in response to human disturbance. These patches are the priorities for habitat conservation. Our methodology provides a habitat-based conservation tool by combining connectivity metrics and considering habitat risks. As a result, the impact of habitat loss on connectivity metrics and future vulnerability of the protected area is assessed in one procedure.

Impact of habitat loss on the diversity and structure of ecological networks between oxyurid nematodes and spur-thighed tortoises (Testudo graeca L.).

Habitat loss and fragmentation are recognized as affecting the nature of biotic interactions, although we still know little about such changes for reptilian herbivores and their hindgut nematodes, in which endosymbiont interactions could range from mutualistic to commensal and parasitic. We investigated the potential cost and benefit of endosymbiont interactions between the spur-thighed tortoise (Testudo graeca L.) and adult oxyurid nematodes (Pharyngodonidae order Oxyurida) in scrublands of southern Spain. For this, we assessed the association between richness and abundance of oxyurid species with tortoises’ growth rates and body traits (weight and carapace length) across levels of habitat loss (low, intermediate and high). Furthermore, by using an intrapopulation ecological network approach, we evaluated the structure and diversity of tortoise–oxyurid interactions by focusing on oxyurid species infesting individual tortoises with different body traits and growth rates across habitats. Overall, tortoise body traits were not related to oxyurid infestation across habitats. Oxyurid richness and abundance however, showed contrasting relationships with growth rates across levels of habitat loss. At low habitat loss, oxyurid infestation was positively associated with growth rates (suggesting a mutualistic oxyurid–tortoise relationship), but the association became negative at high habitat loss (suggesting a parasitic relationship). Furthermore, no relationship was observed when habitat loss was intermediate (suggesting a commensal relationship). The network analysis showed that the oxyurid community was not randomly assembled but significantly nested, revealing a structured pattern for all levels of habitat loss. The diversity of interactions was lowest at low habitat loss. The intermediate level, however, showed the greatest specialization, which indicates that individuals were infested by fewer oxyurids in this landscape, whereas at high habitat loss individuals were the most generalized hosts. Related to the latter, connectance was greatest at high habitat loss, reflecting a more uniform spread of interactions among oxyurid species. At an individual level, heavier and larger tortoises tended to show a greater number of oxyurid species interactions. We conclude that there is an association between habitat loss and the tortoise–oxyurid interaction. Although we cannot infer causality in their association, we hypothesize that such oxyurids could have negative, neutral and positive consequences for tortoise growth rates. Ecological network analysis can help in the understanding of the nature of such changes in tortoise–oxyurid interactions by showing how generalized or specialized such interactions are under different environmental conditions and how vulnerable endosymbiont interactions might be to further habitat loss.

The effects of habitat loss and fragmentation on plant functional traits and functional diversity: what do we know so far?

Habitat loss and fragmentation result in significant landscape changes that ultimately affect plant diversity and add uncertainty to how natural areas will respond to future global change. This uncertainty is important given that the loss of biodiversity often includes losing key ecosystem functions. Few studies have explored the effects of landscape changes on plant functional diversity and evidence so far has shown far more pervasive effects than previously reported by species richness and composition studies. Here we present a review on the impact of habitat loss and fragmentation on (1) individual functional traits-related to persistence, dispersal and establishment-and (2) functional diversity. We also discuss current knowledge gaps and propose ways forward. From the literature review we found that studies have largely focused on dispersal traits, strongly impacted by habitat loss and fragmentation, while traits related to persistence were the least studied. Furthermore, most studies did not distinguish habitat loss from spatial fragmentation and were conducted at the plot or fragment-level, which taken together limits the ability to generalize the scale-dependency of landscape changes on plant functional diversity. For future work, we recommend (1) clearly distinguishing the effects of habitat loss from those of fragmentation, and (2) recognizing the scale-dependency of predicted responses when functional diversity varies in time and space. We conclude that a clear understanding of the effects of habitat loss and fragmentation on functional diversity will improve predictions of the resiliency and resistance of plant communities to varying scales of disturbance.

Impact of habitat loss and fragmentation on reproduction, dispersal and species persistence for an endangered Chilean tree

Survival of rare and endangered plant species following habitat loss and fragmentation is dependent upon in situ reproduction and population persistence, and establishment in new sites, so that stochastic, local extirpation does not lead to species extinction. Here we investigate if and how vegetative and sexual reproduction, propagule dispersal, and seedling establishment promote in situ persistence and establishment in new sites for the endangered, endemic Chilean tree Gomortega keule, in a landscape experiencing extensive habitat loss and fragmentation. Genetic analyses show G. keule reproduces vegetatively, producing large clone groups and providing a mechanism for long-term in situ persistence. Abundant seed set was observed, but seedling establishment was rare. At the single site where seedlings were observed, parentage analysis revealed seed dispersal over greater distances, and in a more aggregated pattern, than would be expected from gravity dispersal alone. We hypothesize that G. keule may represent a ‘seed dispersal anachronism’, wherein the native seed disperser has been lost and possibly replaced by domesticated cattle. The lack of seedling establishment at most sites raises concerns about the ability of existing populations to expand within existing habitat patches or establish at new locations. Globally, habitat loss and fragmentation, coupled with other environmental changes, pose a particular threat to rare species with small populations, because inbreeding and the loss of mutualists can lead to establishment failure and local extirpation. We propose that analysis of a plant’s reproductive strategies as a whole, in its landscape context, is essential for effective species conservation.

Railway ecology vs. road ecology: similarities and differences

Railway ecology is an emerging discipline. In this review, we focus on what is known today regarding the impacts of railways on wildlife, and on the methods to identify, monitor, and mitigate these impacts. Wildlife-train collisions are the most often reported impact, although railway lines can also represent barriers to animal movement, bisecting populations or reducing wildlife access to resources. Little is known on the impact of habitat loss and fragmentation due to railways alone, or on their disturbance effects, including pollution (noise, chemical, light), and on the potential to provide habitat connectivity or surrogate habitats for native species in degraded landscapes. Molecular techniques are one of the most promising methods to study the impacts of railways, as genetic analyses are useful to identify both population sub-structuring, and to assess the potential restoration of functional connectivity by mitigation measures like wildlife passes, or to estimate effective population sizes. Field work is necessary to provide credible mortality rates, which, combined with computer simulations, can allow for estimations of the impact of mortality on population viability. Studies should ideally have Before-After-Control-Impact designs and be long-term. We need to improve mortality estimates, and to understand how impacts threaten population dynamics. We need to go from local-scale studies (e.g., animals use the underpasses) to landscape-scale (i.e., where to place these underpasses to maximize the connectivity at regional/populational levels). Finally, we need to expand our knowledge on less studied, less charismatic species, and to explore the potential environmental benefits of green practices on railway corridors.

Impacts of anthropogenic disturbance on body condition, survival, and site fidelity of nonbreeding Piping Plovers

ABSTRACT The impact of habitat loss on shorebirds may be exacerbated by disturbance from human recreational use, which further reduces the amount of coastal habitat that is functionally available. This can have consequences for the condition of individual birds or for population processes, both of which should be considered in strategies to reduce conflict between shorebirds and recreational users of coastal habitat. Our objectives were to determine the associations between human recreational use, coastal habitat modifications, and Piping Plover (Charadrius melodus) body condition and demography. We monitored banded Piping Plovers throughout their annual cycle to assess variation in body condition, true survival, and site fidelity related to disturbance regimes in 8 geographically proximate, nonbreeding areas along the southeastern Atlantic Coast of North America from 2012 to 2016. Piping Plovers in disturbed sites were 7% lighter than those in less disturbed sites. Additionally, true annual survival was ...

Dynamic minimum set problem for reserve design: Heuristic solutions for large problems

Conversion of wild habitats to human dominated landscape is a major cause of biodiversity loss. An approach to mitigate the impact of habitat loss consists of designating reserves where habitat is preserved and managed. Determining the most valuable areas to preserve in a landscape is called the reserve design problem. There exists several possible formulations of the reserve design problem, depending on the objectives and the constraints. In this article, we considered the dynamic problem of designing a reserve that contains a desired area of several key habitats. The dynamic case implies that the reserve cannot be designed in one time step, due to budget constraints, and that habitats can be lost before they are reserved, due for example to climate change or human development. We proposed two heuristics strategies that can be used to select sites to reserve each year for large reserve design problem. The first heuristic is a combination of the Marxan and site-ordering algorithms and the second heuristic is an augmented version of the common naive myopic heuristic. We evaluated the strategies on several simulated examples and showed that the augmented greedy heuristic is particularly interesting when some of the habitats to protect are particularly threatened and/or the compactness of the network is accounted for.

Crossing Over the Edge in Modified Landscapes: A Framework for Amphibian Studies Linking Occupancy Patterns With Underlying Mechanisms

The impact of habitat loss and modification on amphibians in the tropics is catastrophic. Ecologists must devote their limited time and resources to research that will allow for the most positive impact on the conservation of species into the future. I suggest a framework to aid in organizing research questions that center on understanding the patterns and underlying mechanisms of how species respond to habitat change. The first step is determining which abiotic and biotic factors have changed in the modified habitat compared with the intact habitat. Then, based on species-specific characteristics that mediate the mechanism, we can identify how vital rates of a given species are impacted and lead to the outcome of either growth or decline at the population level. I apply this framework to previous work to examine how breeding site use and tadpole performance contribute to our understanding of mechanisms that underlie occupancy patterns of species across a modified tropical landscape in the Osa Peninsula, Costa Rica.

Exploring uncertainty in population viability analysis and its implications for the conservation of a freshwater fish

Abstract A spatially explicit metapopulation viability model was created within RAMAS‐GIS to address questions related to the conservation and management of a freshwater species at risk (Notropis anogenus). Population viability analysis was conducted to evaluate extinction risk and sensitivity analyses were undertaken to identify the most important spatial and non‐spatial parameters influencing extinction and decline. As biodiversity offsets are increasingly used to compensate for habitat loss, the population model was also used to explore the effectiveness of four potential offsetting mechanisms. In particular, this study addressed whether the impact of habitat loss on a species at risk could be compensated by: (i) increasing habitat elsewhere; (ii) increasing vital rates; (iii) increasing abundance; and (iv) increasing connectivity. Results suggest that extinction risk is low for this metapopulation and that the risk of extinction was most sensitive to vital rates. Compensating habitat loss with habitat gain, the most straightforward approach explored, was by far the most effective type of compensation. Increasing vital rates was the second most promising approach. Although increasing abundance and increasing connectivity could not be categorically ruled out, their effectiveness was much more limited. Overall, this study provided insight into the influence of spatial and non‐spatial parameters on abundance, patch occupancy, and extinction risk of an aquatic species. This approach can be applied to a wide variety of species to evaluate the effect of ecosystem perturbations and inform management options.

Using a Problem-Based Learning Approach to Teach Students about Biodiversity, Species Distributions & the Impact of Habitat Loss

Undergraduates in ecology and conservation biology courses often lack a clear understanding of how to do fieldwork and utilize data analysis to answer complex questions. This is unfortunate, because with proper training these students could identify and address some of today's most pressing environmental issues. I present a simple, problem-based learning activity that provides students a new approach to understanding two important topics in the environmental sciences – how biodiversity is distributed across landscapes and how habitat loss can affect this biodiversity. This activity helps students explore foundational concepts in biology, enables them to collect data in a simplistic field setting, and introduces them to statistical analyses and modeling. In addition, it also teaches students how to ask questions, synthesize data, and address an issue using the same approaches that conservation practitioners utilize in the real world.