Impact Of Different Environmental Conditions Research Articles

Ballistic Energy Absorption of Thermally Aged DGEBA/TETA System and Fique-Fabric Reinforced Epoxy Composite

Abstract: For many applications, such as vests or parts of vests, the fibers are used in fabric, mat, or mesh. Ballistic resistance properties are also improved by the development of special fabrics architectures. It is known that heat and oxygen are the main factors in the aging process of polymers. The mechanisms of aging by oxidation can be investigated by monitoring the mechanical properties of a material exposed to prolonged aging in an oven, which is called the accelerated aging process by thermal oxidation. In previous studies, the epoxy matrix composite reinforced with 40% by volume of fique fabric, already tested and with good ballistic performance, was developed and proposed for individual ballistic protection applications. However, the impact of different environmental conditions on the dynamic properties of the composite has not been studied. Therefore, the present study, for the first time, aimed to apply accelerated weathering through high temperature to the composite, as well as to the epoxy matrix, aiming to evaluate the influence of aging.

Optimizing cultivation conditions for the highest expression of fungal allergens

BackgroundAny reliable allergy diagnosis depends on the quality of the testing material. In the case of fungal allergy, fungal extracts, typically used as test solutions, exhibit considerable differences in their allergenicity. Better knowledge of fungal allergen expression would enable the production of diagnostic fungal extracts of higher quality and, thus, improve the specificity and sensitivity of fungal allergy diagnosis. ObjectiveOur study aimed to find optimal cultivation conditions for the highest expression of fungal allergens. MethodsFungal species (Alternaria alternata, Ulocladium chartarum, Aspergillus fumigatus, Cladosporium herbarum, and Paecilomyces variotii) were cultivated under different conditions, and extracts were prepared from fungal material. To detect the expression of the homologous major allergens Alt a 1 and Ulo c 1 and of different fungal enolases, Western blots with allergen-specific antibodies were carried out. ResultsWestern blots performed with antibodies directed against Alt a 1 and enolases showed that the expression of fungal allergens is highly species-dependent. Even allergens of closely related fungal species and highly conserved, cross-reactive allergens display different expression patterns. ConclusionThis study exhibits the impact of different environmental conditions on the expression of the fungal allergens Alt a 1, Ulo c 1, and different fungal enolases. Furthermore, it broadens the knowledge regarding the expression pattern of the major fungal allergens Alt a 1 and Ulo c 1. Information obtained in this study will help to optimize fungal cultivation to produce diagnostic fungal extracts of high quality and, therefore, improve diagnostic specificity and sensitivity.

Experimental and numerical study on nonlinear basic and drying creep of normal strength concrete under uniaxial compression

The material behavior of concrete is highly nonlinear and time-dependent. In particular, the evolution of deformation due to creep is crucially dependent on the acting stress and the environmental conditions. Numerous experimental campaigns for determining the complex material behavior of concrete in various loading conditions and environmental conditions can be found in the literature. However, the experimental investigation of the time-dependent deformation due to high sustained loading, i.e., nonlinear creep, has received less attention. Especially, the evaluation of the impact of different environmental conditions on nonlinear creep is still pending. In this contribution an experimental study on basic and drying creep under moderate and high uniaxial compression is presented. The experimental results indicate that the nonlinearity of the deformation due to creep in high uniaxial compression is dependent on the environmental conditions. Additionally, the capability of selected constitutive models for representing nonlinear creep is assessed in a numerical study based on the novel experimental results.

Risk of low stability Saccharomyces cerevisiae ATCC 9763-heavy metals complex in gastrointestinal simulated conditions

The biosorption of heavy metals by microorganisms has attracted the interest of food researchers as the last approach to reduce the risk of their absorption in the human body. But the stability of yeast-metal complexes under simulated gastrointestinal conditions has not been investigated. In this study stability of complex as well as isotherm and kinetic models of biosorption have been studied. Also, the impact of some pretreatment on yeast biosorption was studied to check the possible impact of different environmental conditions in food processing. Data showed a risk of heavy metal release in simulated gastrointestinal conditions. The best biosorption of metals from aqueous solutions by Saccharomyces (S.) cerevisiae may be achieved after NaOH pretreatment for Mercury (Hg) 92.7%. While biosorption of Lead (Pb) 37.48%, Arsenic (As) 19.44%, and Cadmium (Cd) 39.9% by untreated yeast were better. In gastrointestinal conditions, Hg and Cd-yeast complexes were more stable and biosorption of Cd and Pb increased. Bonds of As and Hg-yeast complexes in digestion conditions were reversible. The metals biosorption by untreated yeast followed the pseudo-second-order kinetic and the Langmuir isotherm model for Hg, Pb, and Cd and Freundlich for As. Results showed that biosorption of heavy metals by S. cerevisiae, although may decrease metal bioavailability in fermented foods, the complex is not enough stable in gastrointestinal conditions.

Hourly Forecasting of Solar Photovoltaic Power in Pakistan Using Recurrent Neural Networks

The solar photovoltaic (PV) power forecast is crucial for steady grid operation, scheduling, and grid electricity management. In this work, numerous time series forecast methodologies, including the statistical and artificial intelligence-based methods, are studied and compared fastidiously to forecast PV electricity. Moreover, the impact of different environmental conditions for all of the algorithms is investigated. Hourly solar PV power forecasting is done to confirm the effectiveness of various models. Data used in this paper is of one entire year and is acquired from a 100 MW solar power plant, namely, Quaid-e-Azam Solar Park, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. This paper suggests recurrent neural networks (RNNs) as the best-performing forecasting model for PV power output. Furthermore, the bidirectional long-short-term memory RNN framework delivered high accuracy results in all weather conditions, especially under cloudy weather conditions where root mean square error (RMSE) was found lowest 0.0025, R square stands at 0.99, and coefficient of variation of root mean square error (RMSE) Cv was observed 0.0095%.

Cooling performance of porous polymer radiative coating under different environmental conditions throughout all-year

Cooling terrestrial objects for thermoregulation is a significant challenge in this decade due to the rapidly increasing world energy consumption and human daily life demands. Furthermore, the conventional cooling technologies are energy-intensive, as predominantly vapor compression-based cooling systems consume a substantial amount of electricity. Therefore, the development of energy-efficient alternative cooling techniques with fewer environmental footprints is desirable. Here, we present a porous polymer coating with P(VDF-HFP) as a passive radiative cooler to investigate the cooling performance under various conditions. The reflectivity within the visible wavelength range (0.38-0.78 μm) and the ultraviolet visible-near infrared wavelength range (0.25–2.5 μm) of a 2.0 mm thick porous polymer radiative coating (PPRC) are about 98% and 94%, while the emissivity in the main atmospheric window (8–13 μm) is up to about 97%, indicating that the proposed PPRC is a potential candidate to achieve a notable radiative cooling performance. By taking the meteorological location of Shanghai, China, as an example, the radiative cooling performance is tested for a whole year. The PPRC cooler can constantly exhibit excellent cooling performance throughout all-year and show the best in winter, followed by spring, autumn, and summer under typical fine weather conditions. We investigated quantitatively the impact of different environmental conditions, including cloud amount, air quality, relative humidity, and ambient temperature on the performance of the radiative cooler, which is essential for real-world deployment. For example, the PPRC cooler can achieve a temperature drop of up to about 6.9 °C at the relative humidity of 38% and only 3.9 °C at the relative humidity of 68% at 15:00–17:00 in summer when other environmental conditions are similar. As the passive cooling technique is expected to play an increasing role in the future, this work facilitates the fabrication of environmentally friendly PPRC cooler for energy-saving applications.

The Impact of Different Environmental Conditions during Vegetative Propagation on Growth, Survival, and Biochemical Characteristics in Populus Hybrids in Clonal Field Trial

To have a cleaner environment, good well-being, and improve the health of citizens it is necessary to expand green urban and suburban areas using productive and adapted material of tree species. The quality of urban greenery, resistance to negative climate change factors and pollution, as well as efficiency of short-rotation forestry in suburban areas, depends primarily on the selection of hybrids and clones, suitable for the local environmental conditions. We postulate that ecogenetic response, phenotypic plasticity, and genotypic variation of hybrid poplars (Populus L.) grown in plantations are affected not only by the peculiarities of hybrids and clones, but also by environmental conditions of their vegetative propagation. The aim of the present study was to estimate growth and biochemical responses, the phenotypic plasticity, genotypic variation of adaptive traits, and genetically regulated adaptability of Populus hybrids in field trials which may be predisposed by the simulated contrasting temperature conditions at their vegetative propagation phase. The research was performed with the 20 cultivars and experimental clones of one intraspecific cross and four different interspecific hybrids of poplars propagated under six contrasting temperature regimes in phytotron. The results suggest that certain environmental conditions during vegetative propagation not only have a short-term effect on tree viability and growth, but also can help to adapt to climate change conditions and grow successfully in the long-term. It was found that tree growth and biochemical traits (the chlorophyll A and B, pigments content and the chlorophyll A/B ratio) of hybrid poplar clones grown in field trials, as well as their traits’ genetic parameters, were affected by the rooting-growing conditions during vegetative propagation phase. Hybrids P. balsamifera × P. trichocarpa, and P. trichocarpa × P. trichocarpa have shown the most substantial changes of biochemical traits across vegetative propagation treatments in field trial. Rooting-growing conditions during vegetative propagation had also an impact on coefficients of genotypic variation and heritability in hybrid poplar clones when grown in field trials.

Eco-friendly magnetic biochar: An effective trap for nanoplastics of varying surface functionality and size in the aqueous environment

• Nanoplastics (NPs) equilibrium was achieved in <10 min of interaction. • The size and functionality of NPs significantly influenced their elimination by composites. • The impact of different environmental conditions on composites affinity was minimal. • Complexation and electrostatic attraction were dominating adsorption processes. The surge in nano/microplastics (NPs/MPs) through myriad daily products released in the aqueous environment highlights the importance of the urgent development of mitigation techniques. The study has assessed the performance of iron-modified biochar pyrolyzed at two different temperatures, i.e., 550 °C (FB-550) and 850 °C (FB-850), with magnetic extractability for the easy and prompt removal of NPs of varying size and surface functionality. NP1 (1000 nm, carboxyl), NP2 (1000 nm, amine), and NP3 (30 nm, carboxyl) were subjected to batch experiments with the composites. Rapid elimination of all the NPs (<10 min) from the water system using robust magnetic-composites was observed. A higher-order of reaction kinetics (n > 2) was found through the general order model, and a good fit for Sips isotherm suggests ultrafast NPs removal and heterogeneous nature of the composite surface. Maximum removal capacities for NP1 (225.11 mg/g), and NP3 (206.46 mg/g) were obtained using FB-850, whereas FB-550 showed higher removal of NP2 (290.20 mg/g). The influence of solution pH on the sorption of NPs was limited with significant variation in zeta potential, suggesting the probability of surface complexation of NPs. The spectroscopic analysis of reaction mixture showed the disappearance of COO − peak, generation of FeOOH stretching, and shift in Fe-O band, confirming the involvement of surface complexation in the sorption process. Minimal impact of environmental parameters, reaction spontaneity, and efficient removal of NPs in complex aqueous matrices justify the composites' environmental applicability. No-iron release and excellent reusability of the utilized adsorbents support the large-scale applicability of the composites.

Effect of temperature, CO2 and O2 on motility and mobility of Anisakidae larvae

Anisakidae, marine nematodes, are underrecognized fish-borne zoonotic parasites. Studies on factors that could trigger parasites to actively migrate out of the fish are very limited. The objective of this study was to assess the impact of different environmental conditions (temperature, CO2 and O2) on larval motility (in situ movement) and mobility (migration) in vitro. Larvae were collected by candling or enzymatic digestion from infected fish, identified morphologically and confirmed molecularly. Individual larvae were transferred to a semi-solid Phosphate Buffered Saline agar, and subjected to different temperatures (6 ℃, 12 ℃, 22 ℃, 37 ℃) at air conditions. Moreover, different combinations of CO2 and O2 with N2 as filler were tested, at both 6 °C and 12 °C. Video recordings of larvae were translated into scores for larval motility and mobility. Results showed that temperature had significant influence on larval movements, with the highest motility and mobility observed at 22 ℃ for Anisakis spp. larvae and 37 ℃ for Pseudoterranova spp. larvae. During the first 10 min, the median migration of Anisakis spp. larvae was 10 cm at 22 ℃, and the median migration of Pseudoterranova spp. larvae was 3 cm at 37 ℃. Larval mobility was not significantly different under the different CO2 or O2 conditions at 6 °C and 12 ℃. It was concluded that temperature significantly facilitated larval movement with the optimum temperature being different for Anisakis spp. and Pseudoterranova spp., while CO2 and O2 did not on the short term. This should be further validated in parasite-infected/spiked fish fillets.

Impact of Different Environmental Conditions and Management Techniques on Productivity of Grassland in Central and Southern Area of Korea

Impact of Different Environmental Conditions and Management Techniques on Productivity of Grassland in Central and Southern Area of Korea

Impact of Different Environmental Conditions and Cultivation Techniques on Productivity of Forage Corn in Central and Southern Area of Korea

Impact of Different Environmental Conditions and Cultivation Techniques on Productivity of Forage Corn in Central and Southern Area of Korea

Impact of Different Environmental Conditions and Production Techniques on Forage Productivity of Italian Ryegrass in Central and Southern Regions of Korea

Impact of Different Environmental Conditions and Production Techniques on Forage Productivity of Italian Ryegrass in Central and Southern Regions of Korea

Updated and standardized genome-scale reconstruction of Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv, iEK1011, simulates flux states indicative of physiological conditions

BackgroundThe efficacy of antibiotics against M. tuberculosis has been shown to be influenced by experimental media conditions. Investigations of M. tuberculosis growth in physiological conditions have described an environment that is different from common in vitro media. Thus, elucidating the interplay between available nutrient sources and antibiotic efficacy has clear medical relevance. While genome-scale reconstructions of M. tuberculosis have enabled the ability to interrogate media differences for the past 10 years, recent reconstructions have diverged from each other without standardization. A unified reconstruction of M. tuberculosis H37Rv would elucidate the impact of different nutrient conditions on antibiotic efficacy and provide new insights for therapeutic intervention.ResultsWe present a new genome-scale model of M. tuberculosis H37Rv, named iEK1011, that unifies and updates previous M. tuberculosis H37Rv genome-scale reconstructions. We functionally assess iEK1011 against previous models and show that the model increases correct gene essentiality predictions on two different experimental datasets by 6% (53% to 60%) and 18% (60% to 71%), respectively. We compared simulations between in vitro and approximated in vivo media conditions to examine the predictive capabilities of iEK1011. The simulated differences recapitulated literature defined characteristics in the rewiring of TCA metabolism including succinate secretion, gluconeogenesis, and activation of both the glyoxylate shunt and the methylcitrate cycle. To assist efforts to elucidate mechanisms of antibiotic resistance development, we curated 16 metabolic genes related to antimicrobial resistance and approximated evolutionary drivers of resistance. Comparing simulations of these antibiotic resistance features between in vivo and in vitro media highlighted condition-dependent differences that may influence the efficacy of antibiotics.ConclusionsiEK1011 provides a computational knowledge base for exploring the impact of different environmental conditions on the metabolic state of M. tuberculosis H37Rv. As more experimental data and knowledge of M. tuberculosis H37Rv become available, a unified and standardized M. tuberculosis model will prove to be a valuable resource to the research community studying the systems biology of M. tuberculosis.

Impact of different environmental conditions on the aggregation of biogenic U(IV) nanoparticles synthesized by Desulfovibrio alaskensis G20.

This study investigates the impact of specific environmental conditions on the formation of colloidal U(IV) nanoparticles by the sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB, Desulfovibrio alaskensis G20). The reduction of soluble U(VI) to less soluble U(IV) was quantitatively investigated under growth and non-growth conditions in bicarbonate or 1,4-piperazinediethanesulfonic acid (PIPES) buffered environments. The results showed that under non-growth conditions, the majority of the reduced U nanoparticles aggregated and precipitated out of solution. High resolution transmission electron microscopy revealed that only a very small fraction of cells had reduced U precipitates in the periplasmic spaces in the presence of PIPES buffer, whereas in the presence of bicarbonate buffer, reduced U was also observed in the cytoplasm with greater aggregation of biogenic U(IV) particles at higher initial U(VI) concentrations. The same experiments were repeated under growth conditions using two different electron donors (lactate and pyruvate) and three electron acceptors (sulfate, fumarate, and thiosulfate). In contrast to the results of the non-growth experiments, even after 0.2μm filtration, the majority of biogenic U(IV) remained in the aqueous phase resulting in potentially mobile biogenic U(IV) nanoparticles. Size fractionation results showed that U(IV) aggregates were between 18 and 200nm in diameter, and thus could be very mobile. The findings of this study are helpful to assess the size and potential mobility of reduced U nanoparticles under different environmental conditions, and would provide insights on their potential impact affecting U(VI) bioremediation efforts at subsurface contaminated sites.

Biogeographic distribution and habitat association of Ammonia genetic variants around the coastline of Great Britain

High morphological variation and the lack of clearly defined morphological criteria for identification have led to difficulties in the identification of species in the foraminiferal genus Ammonia. It is often difficult to decide if morphological variability is genetic or ecophenotypic and more than 40 species, subspecies and varieties have been described worldwide under the generic name Ammonia. This study aimed to add new insight into the genetic diversity, biogeographical distribution and the impact of different environmental conditions in Ammonia populations around the coastline of Great Britain. A total of 164 Ammonia specimens were examined from 19 different populations. Genetic analysis revealed three distinct large subunit (LSU) ribosomal (r) RNA gene genetic types T1, T2 and T6 in Ammonia populations around Great Britain. T6 is the most common genetic type around Great Britain occurring in 14 of the 19 populations. T2 was represented in 6 of the 19 populations and T1 was found in only 5 of the 19 populations. These genetic types were not ubiquitously distributed around the coastline of Great Britain and instead their pattern of biogeographical distribution revealed evidence of geographic structuring of Ammonia populations. However, their distribution does not seem to be correlated with habitat. The ability of genetic types to inhabit contrasting intertidal ecosystems is indicative of a non-specific ecological preference. Comparing the Ammonia genetic types from Great Britain to those in other regions around the world revealed geographical connectivity. The large scale distribution of Ammonia genetic types could result from either passive transport of propagules with Ocean currents or by the anthropogenic transportation of individuals with ships ballast water.

The Impact of Different Environmental Conditions on Cognitive Function: A Focused Review.

Cognitive function defines performance in objective tasks that require conscious mental effort. Extreme environments, namely heat, hypoxia, and cold can all alter human cognitive function due to a variety of psychological and/or biological processes. The aims of this Focused Review were to discuss; (1) the current state of knowledge on the effects of heat, hypoxic and cold stress on cognitive function, (2) the potential mechanisms underpinning these alterations, and (3) plausible interventions that may maintain cognitive function upon exposure to each of these environmental stressors. The available evidence suggests that the effects of heat, hypoxia, and cold stress on cognitive function are both task and severity dependent. Complex tasks are particularly vulnerable to extreme heat stress, whereas both simple and complex task performance appear to be vulnerable at even at moderate altitudes. Cold stress also appears to negatively impact both simple and complex task performance, however, the research in this area is sparse in comparison to heat and hypoxia. In summary, this focused review provides updated knowledge regarding the effects of extreme environmental stressors on cognitive function and their biological underpinnings. Tyrosine supplementation may help individuals maintain cognitive function in very hot, hypoxic, and/or cold conditions. However, more research is needed to clarify these and other postulated interventions.

Impact of environmental factors on legionella populations in drinking water.

To examine the impact of environmental factors on Legionella in drinking water distribution systems, the growth and survival of Legionella under various conditions was studied. When incubated in tap water at 4 °C, 25 °C, and 32 °C, L. pneumophila survival trends varied amongst the temperatures, with the stable populations maintained for months at 25 °C and 32 °C demonstrating that survival is possible at these temperatures for extended periods in oligotrophic conditions. After inoculating coupons of PVC, copper, brass, and cast iron, L. pneumophila colonized biofilms formed on each within days to a similar extent, with the exception of cast iron, which contained 1-log less Legionella after 90 days. L. pneumophila spiked in a model drinking water distribution system colonized the system within days. Chlorination of the system had a greater effect on biofilm-associated Legionella concentrations, with populations returning to pre-chlorination levels within six weeks. Biofilms sampled from drinking water meters collected from two areas within central Arizona were analyzed via PCR for the presence of Legionella. Occurrence in only one area indicates that environmental differences in water distribution systems may have an impact on the survival of Legionella. These results document the impact of different environmental conditions on the survival of Legionella in water.

Biogeochemical processes in infiltration basins and their impact on the recharging effluent, the soil aquifer treatment (SAT) system of the Shafdan plant, Israel

Soil aquifer treatment (SAT) systems utilize infiltration basins for recharging pre-treated effluent into the aquifer for water quality improvement. The present research focuses on the diurnal and seasonal variations of oxygen, carbon and nitrogen species in the infiltration basins and in the uppermost vadose zone for determining the impact of different environmental conditions on the composition of the infiltrating effluent. The study was conducted in one of the infiltration basins of the Dan Region Sewage Reclamation Project (Shafdan), Israel. Solar radiation and aeration were recognized to be the two main factors controlling the chemical composition of the effluent within the basin and the uppermost vadose zone. The effluent entering the basin show initial enrichment with dissolved oxygen (DO) due to gas exchange caused by “injection” through the inlet fountain and turbulence during basin filling. The DO, pH and dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) fluctuate diurnally as a result of intense in-basin daylight photosynthesis and nighttime respiration. DO and pH increase during day and decrease during night and the DIC shows an opposite behavior. The daylight net primary production was ∼240μmolL−1d−1 and the diurnal respiration rate was ∼430μmolL−1d−1 (assuming that the nighttime respiration rate is constant over a whole diurnal cycle). The gross primary production during daylight was ∼450μmolL−1d−1. Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and inorganic nitrogen species (NH4++NO3−) varied significantly in the uppermost vadose zone, however, neither the vadose zone nor the basin showed diurnal fluctuations. It appears that chemical variations between three sampling campaigns conducted in different seasons stemmed mainly from the efficiency of basin aeration that resulted from changes in basin’s operation regime and local environmental conditions. The results of this study lead to the following basin management recommendations: (1) keeping short flooding and drying cycles and allowing complete basin desiccation before the next flooding; and (2) flooding the basin during daytime, starting at dawn to maximize oxygen production and minimize infiltration during nighttime. Following these routines would result in higher redox potential of the infiltrating effluent.

Factors affecting the 27K DNA methylation pattern in asthmatic and healthy children from locations with various environments

Gene expression levels are significantly regulated by DNA methylation. Differences in gene expression profiles in the populations from various locations with different environmental conditions were repeatedly observed.In this study we compare the methylation profiles in 200 blood samples of children (aged 7–15 years) with and without bronchial asthma from two regions in the Czech Republic with different levels of air pollution (a highly polluted Ostrava region and a control Prachatice region). Samples were collected in March 2010 when the mean concentrations of benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) measured by stationary monitoring were 10.1±2.4ng/m3 in Ostrava Bartovice (5.6 times higher than in the control region). Significantly higher concentrations of other pollutants (benzene, NO2, respirable air particles and metals) were also found in Ostrava. We applied the Infinium Methylation Assay, using the Human Methylation 27K BeadChip with 27,578 CpG loci for identification of the DNA methylation pattern in studied groups.Results demonstrate a significant impact of different environmental conditions on the DNA methylation patterns of children from the two regions. We found 9916 CpG sites with significantly different methylation (beta value) between children from Ostrava vs. Prachatice from which 58 CpG sites had differences >10%. The methylation of all these 58 CpG sites was lower in children from polluted Ostrava, which indicates a higher gene expression in comparison with the control Prachatice region. We did not find a difference in DNA methylation patterns between children with and without bronchial asthma in individual locations, but patterns in both asthmatics and healthy children differed between Ostrava and Prachatice. Further, we show differences in DNA methylation pattern depending on gender and urinary cotinine levels. Other factors including length of gestation, birth weight and length of full breastfeeding are suggested as possible factors that can impact the DNA methylation pattern in future life.

High resolution neutron imaging for pulsed and constant load operation of passive self-breathing polymer electrolyte fuel cells

Small scale passive self-breathing micro fuel cells are an interesting alternative approach to power small integrated portable systems. The water management of these cells is greatly affected by the cell design – especially at the cathode side. Different cathodic current collector designs with different opening ratios are studied considering the impact onto the water distribution by using in situ high resolution neutron imaging. The impact of pulsed and constant load operation is analyzed as well as the impact of different environmental conditions. Several key observations could be made concerning water management in such cells, including the absence of water accumulation in the anode channels as well as the absence of excessive flooding of the cathode gas diffusion layer (GDL), even in designs implying lateral transport of liquid water over relatively large distances (up to 5mm).