Immunogenicity Of Virus-like Particles Research Articles

Production and evaluation of immunologic characteristics of mzNL4-3, a non-infectious HIV-1 clone with a large deletion in the pol-Sequence

Inactivation of integrase (IN) and reverse transcriptase (RT) can revoke the replication of HIV virions, and non-infectious HIV particles are desirable virus-like particle (VLP) vaccine candidates. Here, we produced inactive HIV-1 particles fit for vaccine and virological purposes by introducing a mutation into the pol sequence. Proviral DNA (pNL4-3) was cut at two points in the pol region using the BalI restriction enzyme and then religated. HEK 293T cells were transfected with the resultant plasmid (pmzNL4-3) to produce mutated virions. To confirm a production of VLPs and evaluate their biological activity the p24 load and syncytium formation (MT2 cells) were analyzed. The assay indicated that mzNL4-3 virions were assembled and contained functional envelope glycoproteins (ENV). In addition, mzNL4-3 virions were able to infect neither the MT2 nor HEK 293T cells. Furthermore, the immunogenicity of VLPs was investigated in a mouse model. According to the data on vaccinated mice, the titer of ENV-specific antibodies rose rapidly after a boosting injection. Moreover, lymphoid cells extracted from these mice proliferated after exposure to the antigen. The mzNL4-3 virus particles possessed immunogenic antigens of HIV and can effectively trigger humoral and CD4 immune responses. Non-infectious mzNL4-3 virions may also be used in biomedical experiments for improving the biological safety conditions. Moreover, the mzNL4-3 seems to be a promising candidate for further HIV-1 vaccine investigations.

Characterization of a putative filovirus vaccine: virus-like particles.

Filoviruses are hemorrhagic fever viruses endemic to parts of Africa and the Philippines. Infection carries with it a mortality rate of up to 90% and currently there are no effective vaccines or therapeutics available to combat infection. However, the filovirus virus-like particles (VLP), which are currently under development, have been shown to be a promising vaccine candidate. They provide protection from infection in the mouse, guinea pig, and nonhuman primate models of infection, eliciting high anti-glycoprotein antibody titers and T cell responses to viral proteins. In this review, we will highlight the development of the filovirus VLP and describe the current understanding of VLP immunogenicity and correlates of protection.

Получение и иммунологические характеристики неинфекционного ВИЧ-1 клона mzNL4-3 с большой делецией вpol-последовательности

Inactivation ofintegrase and reverse transcriptase can revoke the replication of HIV virions, and non-infectious HIV particles are desirable virus-like particle (VLP) vaccine candidates. Here, we produced inactive in replication HIV-1 particles fit for vaccine and virological purposes by introducing a mutation into the pol sequence. Proviral DNA (pNLA-3) was cut at two points in the pol region using the Bal I restriction enzyme and then religated. HEK 293T cells were transfected with the resultant plasmid (pmzNL4-3) to produce mutated virions. To confirm a production of VLPs and evaluate their biological activity the p24 load and syncytium formation (MT2 cells) were analyzed. The assay indicated that mzNL4-3 virions were assembled and contained functional envelope glycoproteins (ENV). In addition, mzNL4-3 virions were not able to infect MT2 and HEK 293T cells. Furthermore, the immunogenicity of VLPs was investigated in a mouse model. According to the data on vaccinated mice, the titer of ENV-specific antibodies rose rapidly after a boosting injection. Moreover, lymphoid cells extracted from these mice proliferated after exposure to the antigen. The mzNL4-3 virus particles possessed immunogenic antigens of HIV and can effectively trigger humoral and CD4 immune responses. Non-infectious mzNL4-3 virions may also be used in biomedical experiments to improve the biological safety conditions. Moreover, the mzNL4-3 seems to be a promising candidate for further HIV-1 vaccine investigations.

Influenza Virus-like Particle Containing Two Different Subtypes of Hemagglutinin Confers Protection in Mice Against Lethal Challenge With A/PR8 (H1N1) and A/HK (H3N2) Viruses

BackgroundPreventing the seasonal or pandemic outbreak of influenza can be powerful and cost-effective.ObjectivesIn this study, we constructed a novel virus-like particle (VLP) platform that contains two hemagglutinin (HA) subtypes and evaluated immunogenicity of constructed VLP in mice.Materials and MethodsThis recombinant candidate vaccine model resulted in the expression of two HAs of H1N1 and H3N2 subtypes co-localized within a VLP. Following infection of insect cells with recombinant baculovirus co-expressing H1, H3 and M1 proteins, VLPs with size of 80–120 nm were self-assembled, budding, and released into the insect culture medium. The resulting VLPs which contained two different subtypes of hemagglutinin were purified by ultracentrifugation. The immunogenicity of VLPs was evaluated in mice following immunization.ResultsOur data showed that vaccination using VLPs elicited robust levels of serum IgG, and viral neutralizing antibodies against A/PR8 (H1N1) and A/HK (H3N2) viruses. Following challenge with lethal dose of A/PR8 (H1N1) and A/HK (H3N2, vaccinated mice were protected, displaying no sign of weight loss and mortality compared to non-vaccinated control mice.ConclusionsVLPs can serve as a promising vaccination strategy to control influenza virus.

Hepatitis C VLPs Delivered to Dendritic Cells by a TLR2 Targeting Lipopeptide Results in Enhanced Antibody and Cell-Mediated Responses

Although many studies provide strong evidence supporting the development of HCV virus-like particle (VLP)-based vaccines, the fact that heterologous viral vectors and/or multiple dosing regimes are required to induce protective immunity indicates that it is necessary to improve their immunogenicity. In this study, we have evaluated the use of an anionic self-adjuvanting lipopeptide containing the TLR2 agonist Pam2Cys (E8Pam2Cys) to enhance the immunogenicity of VLPs containing the HCV structural proteins (core, E1 and E2) of genotype 1a. While co-formulation of this lipopeptide with VLPs only resulted in marginal improvements in dendritic cell (DC) uptake, its ability to concomitantly induce DC maturation at very small doses is a feature not observed using VLPs alone or in the presence of an aluminium hydroxide-based adjuvant (Alum). Dramatically improved VLP and E2-specific antibody responses were observed in VLP+E8Pam2Cys vaccinated mice where up to 3 doses of non-adjuvanted or traditionally alum-adjuvanted VLPs was required to match the antibody titres obtained with a single dose of VLPs formulated with this lipopeptide. This result also correlated with significantly higher numbers of specific antibody secreting cells that was detected in the spleens of VLP+E8Pam2Cys vaccinated mice and greater ability of sera from these mice to neutralise the binding and uptake of VLPs by Huh7 cells. Moreover, vaccination of HLA-A2 transgenic mice with this formulation also induced better VLP-specific IFN-γ-mediated responses compared to non-adjuvanted VLPs but comparable levels to that achieved when coadministered with complete freund’s adjuvant. These results suggest overall that the immunogenicity of HCV VLPs can be significantly improved by the addition of this novel adjuvant by targeting their delivery to DCs and could therefore constitute a viable vaccine strategy for the treatment of HCV.

Immunogenicity of virus-like particles containing modified goose parvovirus VP2 protein

The major capsid protein VP2 of goose parvovirus (GPV) expressed using a baculovirus expression system (BES) assembles into virus-like particles (VLPs). To optimize VP2 gene expression in Sf9 cells, we converted wild-type VP2 (VP2) codons into codons that are more common in insect genes. This change greatly increased VP2 protein production in Sf9 cells. The protein generated from the codon-optimized VP2 (optVP2) was detected by immunoblotting and an indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA). Transmission electron microscopy analysis revealed the formation of VLPs. These findings indicate that optVP2 yielded stable and high-quality VLPs. Immunogenicity assays revealed that the VLPs are highly immunogenic, elicit a high level of neutralizing antibodies and provide protection against lethal challenge. The antibody levels appeared to be directly related to the number of GP-Ag-positive hepatocytes. The variation trends for GP-Ag-positive hepatocytes were similar in the vaccine groups. In comparison with the control group, the optVP2 VLPs groups exhibited obviously better responses. These data indicate that the VLPs retained immunoreactivity and had strong immunogenicity in susceptible geese. Thus, GPV optVP2 appears to be a good candidate for the vaccination of goslings.

Effects of downstream processing on structural integrity and immunogenicity in the manufacture of papillomavirus type 16 L1 virus-like particles

There is increasing demand for virus-like particles (VLPs) as a platform for prophylactic vaccine production. However, little attention has been paid to how downstream processing affects the structure and immunogenicity of the VLPs. In this study, we compared three methods of purifying human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV16) VLPs, each including the same cation-exchange chromatography (CEC) step. Method T-1 uses both ammonium sulfate precipitation (ASP) and a step to remove precipitated contaminating proteins (SRPC) prior to CEC, while T-2 uses only the SRPC step prior to CEC and T-3 includes neither step. We compared the structural integrity and immunogenicity of the HPV16 VLPs resulting from these three methods. All three preparations were highly pure. However, the final yields of the VLPs obtained with T-2 were 1.5 and 2 fold higher than with T-1 and T-3, respectively. With respect to structural integrity, T-1 and T-2 HPV16 VLPs had smaller hydrodynamic diameters and higher reactivity towards monoclonal anti-HPV16 neutralizing antibodies than T-3 VLPs, indicating higher potentials of T-1 and T-2 VLPs for eliciting anti-HPV16 neutralizing antibodies. Moreover, it was confirmed that the T-1 and T-2 HPV16 VLPs elicit anti-HPV16 neutralizing antibodies more efficiently than T-3 HPV16 VLPs do in mice immunizations: the abilities for eliciting neutralizing antibodies were in the order T-2 VLP > T-1 VLP > T-3 VLP. We conclude that the process design for purifying HPV VLPs is a critical determinant of the quality of the final product.

The Choice of Resin-Bound Ligand Affects the Structure and Immunogenicity of Column-Purified Human Papillomavirus Type 16 Virus-Like Particles

Cell growth conditions and purification methods are important in determining biopharmaceutical activity. However, in studies aimed at manufacturing virus-like particles (VLPs) for the purpose of creating a prophylactic vaccine and antigen for human papillomavirus (HPV), the effects of the presence of a resin-bound ligand during purification have never been investigated. In this study, we compared the structural integrity and immunogenicity of two kinds of VLPs derived from HPV type 16 (HPV16 VLPs): one VLP was purified by heparin chromatography (hHPV16 VLP) and the other by cation-exchange chromatography (cHPV16 VLP). The reactivity of anti-HPV16 neutralizing monoclonal antibodies (H16.V5 and H16.E70) towards hHPV16 VLP were significantly higher than the observed cHPV16 VLP reactivities, implying that hHPV16 VLP possesses a greater number of neutralizing epitopes and has a greater potential to elicit anti-HPV16 neutralizing antibodies. After the application of heparin chromatography, HPV16 VLP has a higher affinity for H16.V5 and H16.E70. This result indicates that heparin chromatography is valuable in selecting functional HPV16 VLPs. In regard to VLP immunogenicity, the anti-HPV16 L1 IgG and neutralizing antibody levels elicited by immunizations of mice with hHPV16 VLPs were higher than those elicited by cHPV16 VLP with and without adjuvant. Therefore, the ability of hHPV16 VLP to elicit humoral immune responses was superior to that of cHPV16 VLP. We conclude that the specific chromatographic technique employed for the purification of HPV16 VLPs is an important factor in determining the structural characteristics and immunogenicity of column-purified VLPs.

Modulation of the immunogenicity of virus-like particles composed of mutant hepatitis B virus envelope subunits

Virus-like particles (VLPs) are non-infectious subviral protein complexes, which possess structural features identical or closely related to infectious virions. They are utilized as delivery tools for immunologically relevant antigenic sequences. In order to investigate whether mutant subunits can modulate the VLP immunogenicity, comparative immunization studies with wild-type and non-native VLPs were performed. To determine whether disulfide bonding impacts on the immunogenicity of hepatitis B virus envelope proteins (HBsAg), mutant HBsAg subunits with single, double and triple cysteine residue substitutions were generated. The mutant proteins were expressed in cell culture, secretion competent non-native VLPs generated, followed by immunization studies in mice to measure the cellular immune response. The reduced ability of mutant HBsAg proteins to form disulfide bonds does not interfere with their ability to assemble into secretion competent VLPs. Depending on specific cysteine to alanine changes, VLPs could be generated with or without an increased ratio of monomeric versus dimeric/oligomeric subunits compared to wild-type VLPs. The utilization of non-native VLPs resulted in enhanced cellular immune responses and does not seem to depend on the ratio between monomeric or dimeric/oligomeric subunits. Comparative immunization studies strongly indicate that changes in the disulfide bonding modulate the VLP immunogenicity most likely due to structural changes. We hypothesize that structural features have evolved with reduced immunogenicity to evade the constraints imposed by the immune system. Altering VLP conformation may represent an attractive strategy to modulate antigen processing resulting in an enhanced immune response and/or a changed hierarchy of epitope presentation.

Adjuvanting influenza virus-like particles with glycophosphatidylinosital-anchored immunostimulatory molecules by protein transfer to enhance antiviral immune responses (106.14)

Abstract The effortless nature through which influenza, a bilayered lipid enveloped virus, can spread via an aerosol route and cause mortality is distressing. The use of virus-like particles (VLPs), that consist of a virus’ capsid proteins but not the viral genome required for replication, as vaccine candidates proves beneficial due to their safe nature and structural similarity with the live virus. In this study, we show that the incorporation of GPI-anchored immunostimulatory molecules onto H5 influenza VLPs can be accomplished through a quick, easy and stable protein transfer method. Affinity chromatography was used to purify the GPI-proteins (ICAM-1 and IL-12) from CHO-K1 cell lysates and incorporation onto the VLPs was determined by western blot analysis. To verify that incorporation occurred specifically via the GPI-anchor, PI-PLC treatment before and after incorporation and inhibition by fatty-acid binding proteins was carried out. Finally, electron microscopy was used to determine whether the structural integrity of the VLPs was altered following protein transfer. Our results indicate that incorporation of both GPI-proteins onto influenza H5 VLPs occurred following a 2 hour incubation at 37°C without disturbing the structural integrity of the VLPs. Therefore, this protein transfer method can be used to enhance the immunogenicity of VLPs easily and quickly to then be used as a potential influenza vaccine.

Intranasal Immunization with Influenza VLPs Incorporating Membrane-Anchored Flagellin Induces Strong Heterosubtypic Protection

We demonstrated previously that the incorporation of a membrane-anchored form of flagellin into influenza virus-like particles (VLPs) improved the immunogenicity of VLPs significantly, inducing partially protective heterosubtypic immunity by intramuscular immunization. Because the efficacy of mucosal vaccination is highly dependent on an adjuvant, and is particularly effective for preventing mucosal infections such as influenza, we determined whether the membrane-anchored flagellin is an efficient adjuvant for VLP vaccines by a mucosal immunization route. We compared the adjuvant effect of membrane-anchored and soluble flagellins for immunization with influenza A/PR8 (H1N1) VLPs by the intranasal route in a mouse model. The results demonstrate that membrane-anchored flagellin is an effective adjuvant for intranasal (IN) immunization, inducing enhanced systemic and mucosal antibody responses. High cellular responses were also observed as shown by cytokine production in splenocyte cultures when stimulated with viral antigens. All mice immunized with flagellin-containing VLPs survived challenge with a high lethal dose of homologous virus as well as a high dose heterosubtypic virus challenge (40 LD50 of A/Philippines/82, H3N2). In contrast, no protection was observed with a standard HA/M1 VLP group upon heterosubtypic challenge. Soluble flagellin exhibited a moderate adjuvant effect when co-administered with VLPs by the mucosal route, as indicated by enhanced systemic and mucosal responses and partial heterosubtypic protection. The membrane-anchored form of flagellin incorporated together with antigen into influenza VLPs is effective as an adjuvant by the mucosal route and unlike standard VLPs, immunization with such chimeric VLPs elicits protective immunity to challenge with a distantly related influenza A virus.

Virus-Like Particles Expressing the Nucleocapsid Gene as an Efficient Vaccine Against Rift Valley Fever Virus

Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV), a member of the family Bunyaviridae, regularly accounts for large and severe outbreaks among humans and livestock in Africa and Arabia. Therefore, safe and efficient vaccines are highly needed. Here, we report the production of recombinant virus-like particles (VLPs) that, in addition to their similarity to RVFV particles, are able to express the viral nucleocapsid (N) gene. A single inoculation of 1 × 10(6) of these N-VLPs was sufficient to protect 100% of mice from infection with a lethal dose of 1 × 10(5) PFU of RVFV. Our study demonstrates that N-VLPs can be considered as a safe and efficient vaccine against the emerging pathogen RVFV, and that VLPs that actively produce a viral antigen may be considered a strategy to improve the immunogenicity of VLPs in general.

Validation of a novel approach for the rapid production of immunogenic virus-like particles for bluetongue virus

Bluetongue virus causes an emerging disease of ruminants, principally affecting sheep and cattle. Since 1998, there have been multiple separate outbreaks of bluetongue disease in Europe that have highlighted the need for a safe, efficacious, DIVA compliant vaccine. We report here a new baculovirus expression strategy which allowed pre-integration of the genes encoding the BTV inner capsid proteins at one baculovirus locus and those encoding the outer capsid proteins at a different locus. A modified baculovirus with two marker proteins to facilitate the phenotypic selection of recombinant viruses was developed. The utility of this approach is demonstrated by the production of BTV VLPs to a number of serotypes. For a proof of concept, VLPs of one serotype was then tested for protective immune response. VLPs were demonstrated to be safe, highly effective, immunogens in sheep, reducing post-challenge viraemia to levels below the threshold detection limit of quantitative RT-PCR when vaccinated animals were challenged with virulent virus.

HIV-1 derived peptides fused to HBsAg affect its immunogenicity

The hepatitis B virus (HBV) surface small antigen (HBsAg) self-assembles into virus-like particles (VLPs). HBsAg-based VLPs constitute a powerful vector for heterologous immunogenic peptides to develop a safe vaccine delivery system. HBV and the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) are frequently associated in infection. An HIV-1 class I polyepitope was designed for an HIV-1/HBV vaccine prototype based on HBsAg VLPs. Invariable peptides from the original HIV-1 polyepitope were here permutated to study the influence of epitope order on HIV-1/HBV VLP immunogenicity. Anti-HIV-1 cellular responses were statistically comparable among polyepitope variants. Nevertheless, delivered HIV-1 polyepitopes impacted anti-HBsAg carrier immunogenicity in a polyepitope-specific manner. For a given set of epitopes, the choice of epitope order in polyepitopes is strategic to control immune responses towards HBsAg VLPs used as carrier of foreign immunogenic peptides.

Melanoma vaccine candidates from chimeric hepatitis B core virus‐like particles carrying a tumor‐associated MAGE‐3 epitope

Vaccination of melanoma patients with tumor-specific antigens recognized by cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) may produce significant tumor regressions. Here, we suggest a novel type of tumor vaccines, with well-studied CTL epitopes presented on highly immunogenic virus-like particle (VLP) carriers. Cancer-germline gene MAGE-3 encodes for an antigenic nonapeptide (MAGE-3(168-176) peptide) that is recognized by CTLs on human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-A1 and HLA-B35 molecules. A set of recombinant genes encoding hepatitis B virus core protein carrying MAGE-3 epitope was constructed and expressed in Escherichia coli cells. Variants that led to formation of chimeric VLPs in vivo were purified and analyzed for their DNA binding properties in vitro. VLPs exhibiting the most pronounced nucleic acid binding affinity were selected and loaded either with single-stranded DNA oligodeoxynucleotides rich in nonmethylated CG motifs, or with longer double-stranded DNA fragments. Packaged DNA was protected, at least partially, against the action of bacterial DNase. Such highly purified chimeric VLPs with entrapped immunomodulatory sequences could possibly be used as antitumor vaccines.

Achievement of avian influenza virus-like particles that could be used as a subunit vaccine against low-pathogenic avian influenza strains in ducks

Infections with H5/H7 low-pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) viruses are now notifiable because such viruses can mutate into highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses, leading to serious problems for both animal and public health. Domestic ducks can play a crucial role in the transmission of H5 LPAI viruses to other poultry. Although prime boost vaccination using, respectively, a recombinant vaccine and an inactivated vaccine was shown to be protective in ducks against H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza, vaccination of domestic ducks against H5 LPAIV is poorly documented. However, substituting inactivated vaccines with subunit vaccines might be more advantageous. In this context, we generated a triple recombinant baculovirus composed of HA and NA proteins derived from a French H5N3 LPAI virus strain and the M protein derived from an Italian H7N1 LPAI virus strain. We describe a molecular construction strategy that enabled the development of virus-like particles (VLPs). Western blot analyses and neuraminidase inhibition assay of cell supernatants purified by sucrose density gradient ultracentrifugation showed that HA, NA and M1 proteins were expressed and co-released. Electron microscopy examination revealed VLPs that were morphologically identical to wild-type virus. Immunogold electron microscopy demonstrated that H5 and N3 proteins were present on the VLP surface, and haemagglutination and neuraminidase assays showed that the H and N proteins, respectively, were biologically active. In addition, VLP immunogenicity (induction of haemagglutination-inhibiting antibodies) was demonstrated in specific pathogen free Muscovy ducks. According to our successful previous experimental results of protection in ducks following vaccination with the three baculovirus-expressed proteins, the present results make feasible the reliable use of H5N3 VLPs as a subunit vaccine in this species.

Chimaeric HIV-1 subtype C Gag molecules with large in-frame C-terminal polypeptide fusions form virus-like particles

HIV-1 Pr55 Gag virus-like particles (VLPs) are strong immunogens with potential as candidate HIV vaccines. VLP immunogenicity can be broadened by making chimaeric Gag molecules: however, VLPs incorporating polypeptides longer than 200 aa fused in frame with Gag have not yet been reported. We constructed a range of gag-derived genes encoding in-frame C-terminal fusions of myristoylation-competent native Pr55Gag and p6-truncated Gag (Pr50Gag) to test the effects of polypeptide length and sequence on VLP formation and morphology, in an insect cell expression system. Fused sequences included a modified reverse transcriptase-Tat-Nef fusion polypeptide (RTTN, 778 aa), and truncated versions of RTTN ranging from 113 aa to 450 aa. Baculovirus-expressed chimaeric proteins were examined by western blot and electron microscopy. All chimaeras formed VLPs which could be purified by sucrose gradient centrifugation. VLP diameter increased with protein MW, from ∼100 nm for Pr55Gag to ∼250 nm for GagRTTN. The presence or absence of the Gag p6 region did not obviously affect VLP formation or appearance. GagRT chimaeric particles were successfully used in mice to boost T-cell responses to Gag and RT that were elicited by a DNA vaccine encoding a GagRTTN polypeptide, indicating the potential of such chimaeras to be used as candidate HIV vaccines.

DNA–VLP prime–boost intra-nasal immunization induces cellular and humoral anti-HIV-1 systemic and mucosal immunity with cross-clade neutralizing activity

The immune response to HIV-1 virus-like particles (VLPs), presenting a clade A Ugandan gp120, has been evaluated in a mouse model by intra-nasal (i.n.) administration by a VLP+VLP homologous or a DNA+VLP heterologous prime-boost immunization protocol, including a HIV-1 DNA gp160/rev plasmid. Furthermore, the effect of the Eurocine lipid-based mucosal L3 adjuvant on the VLP immunogenicity has been assessed as well. The designed heterologous protocol is able to increase the env-specific humoral and cellular immune response, compared to the homologous protocol, which is to some extent increased by the administration of L3-adjuvanted VLP boosting dose. The anti-gag response is statistically increased in both homologous and heterologous protocols, particularly when the VLP boosting dose is adjuvanted. Immune sera from immunized animals exhibit >50% ex vivo neutralizing activity against heterologous A and B-clade viral isolates. An envelope B-cell epitope mapping shows an enhanced response against V3 epitopes all across the C2-V5 region in the heterologous prime-boost immunization strategy. The induction of humoral immunity at mucosal sites, which represents the main port of entry for the HIV-1 infection, is extremely relevant. In this framework, the DNA-VLP heterologous prime-boost protocol appears a promising preventive vaccine approach which can significantly benefit from specific mucosal adjuvants, as the Eurocine L3.

Immunogenicity of virus-like particles containing modified human immunodeficiency virus envelope proteins

Extensive glycosylation and variable loops of the HIV envelope protein (Env) are reported to shield some neutralizing epitopes. Here, we investigated the immunogenicity of mutated HIV Envs presented in virus-like particles (VLPs). We immunized mice with simian human immunodeficiency virus (SHIV) VLPs containing mutant HIV Env with reduced glycosylation (3G), variable loop-deleted mutations (dV1V2), or combinations of both types of mutations (3G-dV2-1G), and evaluated immune responses. Immune sera from mice that received VLPs with modified HIV Envs (3G or dV1V2) showed higher neutralizing activities against the homologous HIV 89.6 virus as well as heterologous viruses when compared with wild type SHIV VLP-immunized mice. Lymphocytes from immunized mice produced HIV Env-specific cytokines, with the 3G-dV2-1G mutant producing high levels of cytokines . Interestingly, both dendritic cells and B cells were found to interact with VLPs suggesting that VLPs are effective immunogens. Therefore, this study suggests that VLPs containing modified HIV Env have the potential to be developed as candidate vaccines capable of inducing cellular and humoral immune responses including neutralizing activities.

Development of a vaccine marker technology: Display of B cell epitopes on the surface of recombinant polyomavirus‐like pentamers and capsoids induces peptide‐specific antibodies in piglets after vaccination

Highly immunogenic capsomers (pentamers) and virus-like particles (VLPs) were generated through insertion of foreign B cell epitopes into the surface-exposed loops of the VP1 protein of murine polyomavirus and via heterologous expression of the recombinant fusion proteins in E. coli. Usually, complex proteins like the keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH) act as standard carrier devices for the display of such immunogenic peptides after chemical linkage. Here, a comparative analysis revealed that antibody responses raised against the carrier entities, KLH or VP1 pentamers, did not significantly differ up to 18 weeks, demonstrating the highly immunogenic nature of VP1-based particulate structures. The carrier-specific antibody response was reproducibly detected in the meat juice after processing. More importantly, chimeric VP1 pentamers and VLPs carrying peptides of 12 and 14 amino acids in length, inserted into the BC2 loop, induced a strong and long-lasting humoral immune response against VP1 and the inserted foreign epitope. Remarkably, the epitope-specific antibody response was only moderately decreased when VP1 pentamers were used instead of VLPs. In conclusion, we identified polyomavirus VP1-based structures displaying surface-exposed immunodominant B cell epitopes as being an efficient carrier system for the induction of potent peptide-specific antibodies. The application of this approach in vaccine marker technology in livestock holding and the meat production chain is discussed.