Vaccine Immunization Research Articles

Reduced SARS-CoV-2 Infection Rates in Lab Workers Conducting Nucleic Acid Testing: Controlling for the Healthy Worker Effect.

During the COVID-19 outbreak in December 2022 in China, some laboratory workers in SARS-CoV-2 nucleic acid testing (NAT) laboratories remained uninfected. To evaluate if the incidence of SARS-CoV-2 infection was reduced in laboratory workers who performed SARS-CoV-2 NAT, and whether this reduction resulted from the healthy worker effect. This retrospective cohort study included 423 laboratory workers from 14 SARS-CoV-2 NAT laboratories in Xiamen, China. The incidence of SARS-CoV-2 infection among laboratory workers was analysed based on whether and how long they were engaged in NAT. The healthy worker effect among the laboratory workers engaged in NAT was examined. The incidence of SARS-CoV-2 infection was lower in workers engaged in SARS-CoV-2 NAT, with a gradual reduction observed as the cumulative time of SARS-CoV-2 NAT increased. A healthy worker effect was observed and eliminated after matching and stratification based on gender, age, education level, and vaccination. Workers who had ever participated in SARS-CoV-2 NAT had a lower cumulative probability of SARS-CoV-2 infection and a longer duration from vaccination to SARS-CoV-2 infection, and this trend was found to be more prominent with a longer cumulative time to SARS-CoV-2 NAT. A reduction in SARS-CoV-2 infections was observed among laboratory workers conducting SARS-CoV-2 NAT after controlling for the healthy worker effect. This finding has broader implications for understanding the role of natural immunity and its interaction with vaccine immunity in defending against SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Arginase-1-specific T cells target and modulate tumor-associated macrophages

BackgroundArginase-1 (Arg1) expressing tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) may create an immune-suppressive tumor microenvironment (TME), which is a significant challenge for cancer immunotherapy. We previously reported the existence of Arg1-specific memory T...

Nanomedicine in Immunotherapy for Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer: Applications and Perspectives.

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) has a strikingly high incidence rate globally. Although immunotherapy brings a great breakthrough in its clinical treatment of NSCLC, significant challenges still need to be overcome. The development of novel multi-functional nanomedicines in the realm of tumor immunotherapy offers promising opportunities for NSCLC patients, as nanomedicines exhibit significant advantages, including specific targeting of tumor cells, improved drug bioavailability, reduced systemic toxicity, and overcoming of immune resistance. In this review, the core features and current clinical status of strategies for NSCLC immunotherapy including immune checkpoint blockade, antibody-drug conjugates, cell engagers, adoptive cells, and cancer vaccines, are surveyed. Particular emphasis is placed on the recent development of nanomedicines that boost these strategies. Nanomedicine can provide novel perspectives for NSCLC immunotherapy.

Roles of mobile teams in tracing lost to follow–up clients: evidence from the optimization of COVID-19 vaccination uptake and routine immunization in Ekiti State

BackgroundEvidence from literature has established that tracing lost to follow-up clients is an effective strategy for complementing other mechanisms for infectious disease control like human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), tuberculosis, and other diseases such as Ebola. As a long-standing successful public health method of optimizing acceptance and/or adherence to infectious disease treatment tracing lost to follow-up clients is usually carried out by manually investigating individuals who absconded or are absent from treatments designed to manage and/or promote their health status. This study seeks to explore the role of mobile teams in tracing clients lost to follow-up for immunization.MethodsThis study was premised on a qualitative research approach to elicit information from purposively selected populations across 9 local government areas (LGA) in Ekiti state, Nigeria. Focus group discussions, in-depth interviews, and key informant interviews were the selected methods of data collection on the roles of mobile teams in tracing lost to follow–up clients for the optimization of COVID-19 and routine immunization in Ekiti state.ResultsA total of 107 healthcare workers across Ekiti state were selected to participate in this study. Our study found tracing lost to follow-up clients resulted in two major successes for health workers. These are increased awareness of COVID-19 vaccination and routine immunization, and improved vaccination coverage for both categories of vaccinees. Distance between communities, and transportation, were interdependent issues reported by health workers as challenges in the course of their duties.ConclusionOur study emphasizes the importance of onboarding and/or training health workers across all categories that are involved in the implementation of a public health program, irrespective of the existing knowledge that they may have on the concept. This study recommends that health workers across all levels, in collaboration with key players and stakeholders employ human-centered designed approaches to improve the sensitization of caregivers, and community populace on the values, benefits, and significance of the COVID-19 vaccination and routine immunization uptake.

The combined immunization of cervical cancer therapeutic vaccine based on Listeria balanced lethal system has a significant therapeutic effect on tumor model mice.

Cervical cancer is the fourth most common cancer and the fourth leading cause of cancer death in women. Effective treatment of cervical cancer is urgently needed. Tumor therapeutic vaccine is a research hotspot in tumor immunotherapy, and the tumor therapeutic vaccine based on attenuated live bacteria carrier has clinical application prospect because of its clear action site and high safety. The bacterial balanced lethal system uses nutritional screening instead of antibiotic screening to avoid the risk of the spread of antibiotic resistance. So it is generally recognized as a green carrier. In our early research, we have constructed two cervical cancer therapeutic vaccine candidates (LM-HPVCW-1 and LI-HPVCW-1) based on Listeria balanced lethal system via transforming the nutrient-deficient strains with nutrition gene complementary plasmid. The complementary plasmid contained the nutrition complementary gene, LM dal gene, and its Amp gene was replaced with asd gene to delete the antibiotic resistance. Besides, it carried the shuffled HPV-16 E6E7 fusion protein gene. In vitro experiments showed that the plasmid carried by the candidate strain could be stably passaged and the target protein could be successfully expressed. In this study, we proved that the two candidate strains were safe in vivo and induced cellular immune response. At the same time, by establishing a tumor-bearing mouse model, it was proved that the two vaccine strains combined immunization could effectively inhibit mouse tumors. The mechanism of tumor suppression may be related to breaking the immunosuppression of tumor microenvironment and inducing CD8+ T cell infiltration. The therapeutic vaccine for cervical cancer constructed in this study is expected to be further applied in clinical practice.

Passive infusion of an S2-Stem broadly neutralizing antibody protects against SARS-CoV-2 infection and lower airway inflammation in rhesus macaques.

The continued evolution of SARS-CoV-2 variants capable of subverting vaccine and infection-induced immunity suggests the advantage of a broadly protective vaccine against betacoronaviruses (β-CoVs). Recent studies have isolated monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) from SARS-CoV-2 recovered-vaccinated donors capable of neutralizing many variants of SARS-CoV-2 and other β-CoVs. Many of these mAbs target the conserved S2 stem region of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, rather than the receptor binding domain contained within S1 primarily targeted by current SARS-CoV-2 vaccines. One of these S2-directed mAbs, CC40.8, has demonstrated protective efficacy in small animal models against SARS-CoV-2 challenge. As the next step in the pre-clinical testing of S2-directed antibodies as a strategy to protect from SARS-CoV-2 infection, we evaluated the in vivo efficacy of CC40.8 in a clinically relevant non-human primate model by conducting passive antibody transfer to rhesus macaques (RM) followed by SARS-CoV-2 challenge. CC40.8 mAb was intravenously infused at 10mg/kg, 1mg/kg, or 0.1 mg/kg into groups (n = 6) of RM, alongside one group that received a control antibody (PGT121). Viral loads in the lower airway were significantly reduced in animals receiving higher doses of CC40.8. We observed a significant reduction in inflammatory cytokines and macrophages within the lower airway of animals infused with 10mg/kg and 1mg/kg doses of CC40.8. Viral genome sequencing demonstrated a lack of escape mutations in the CC40.8 epitope. Collectively, these data demonstrate the protective efficiency of broadly neutralizing S2-targeting antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 infection within the lower airway while providing critical preclinical work necessary for the development of pan-β-CoV vaccines.

Beyond Chemotherapy: Exploring 5-FU Resistance and Stemness in Colorectal Cancer.

Colorectal cancer (CRC) remains a significant global health challenge, demanding continuous advancements in treatment strategies. This review explores the complexities of targeting colorectal cancer stem cells (CSCs) and the mechanisms contributing to resistance to 5-fluorouracil (5-FU). The efficacy of 5-FU is enhanced by combination therapies such as FOLFOXIRI and targeted treatments like bevacizumab, cetuximab, and panitumumab, particularly in KRAS wild-type tumors, despite associated toxicity. Biomarkers like thymidylate synthase (TYMS), thymidine phosphorylase (TP), and dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase (DPD) are crucial for predicting 5-FU efficacy and resistance. Targeting CRC-CSCs remains challenging due to their inherent resistance to conventional therapies, marker variability, and the protective influence of the tumor microenvironment which promotes stemness and survival. Personalized treatment strategies are increasingly essential to address CRC's genetic and phenotypic diversity. Advances in immunotherapy, including immune checkpoint inhibitors and cancer vaccines, along with nanomedicine-based therapies, offer promising targeted drug delivery systems that enhance specificity, reduce toxicity, and provide novel approaches for overcoming resistance mechanisms. Integrating these innovative strategies with traditional therapies may enhance the effectiveness of CRC therapy by addressing the underlying causes of 5-FU resistance in CSCs.

Towards tetanus elimination

Tetanus is a serious toxin-mediated disease caused by Clostridium tetani, and it was well-known to ancient physicians and in Greece. The disease is still prevalent in developing countries including Egypt with high morbidity and mortality. It is preventable with a safe and cost-effective vaccine and effective immunization programs. Based on the remarkable success of the World Health Organization (WHO) in reducing maternal and neonatal tetanus throughout the world, lowering tetanus among adults is also possible if a plan for disease elimination is promoted.

A Study on the Induction of Multi-Type Immune Responses in Mice via an mRNA Vaccine Based on Hemagglutinin and Neuraminidase Antigen.

The Influenza A virus (IAV), a pathogen affecting the respiratory system, represents a major risk to public health worldwide. Immunization remains the foremost strategy to control the transmission of IAV. The virus has two primary antigens: hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA). Our previous studies have demonstrated that an IAV NA mRNA vaccine can induce Th1-type immune responses in mice. This research examined the immune responses elicited by an mRNA vaccine targeting both HA and NA antigens in murine models. In this study, we used two dual-antigen immunization strategies: single-site immunization with an IAV HA+NA mRNA vaccine and multi-site immunization with an IAV HA mRNA vaccine and IAV NA mRNA vaccine. Hemagglutination-inhibiting antibody titer and neutralizing antibody titer in the sera of immunized mice were evaluated, and a viral challenge experiment was conducted. Additionally, the immune responses elicited by the two immunization strategies were characterized using flow cytometry and ELISA. Comparative analyses were performed with mice immunized individually with the IAV HA mRNA vaccine, IAV NA mRNA vaccine, and inactivated vaccine. The results showed that by using a multi-site immunization strategy, mice were able to generate higher levels of hemagglutination-inhibiting and neutralizing antibodies, and were protected in a viral challenge experiment. Moreover, the multi-site regimen also promoted the generation of cytotoxic T cells and maintained a balanced Th1/Th2 immune response. Using mRNA vaccine based on a HA and NA antigen with multi-site immunization strategy can induce higher levels of hemagglutination-inhibiting and neutralizing antibodies, and multi-type immune responses in mice, providing new theoretical and experimental support for advancing upcoming influenza vaccines.

Advancing the Fight Against Cervical Cancer: The Promise of Therapeutic HPV Vaccines.

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a major global health issue and is recognized as the leading cause of cervical cancer. While prophylactic vaccination programs have led to substantial reductions in both HPV infection rates and cervical cancer incidence, considerable burdens of HPV-related diseases persist, particularly in developing countries with inadequate vaccine coverage and uptake. The development of therapeutic vaccines for HPV represents an emerging strategy that has the potential to bolster the fight against cervical cancer. Unlike current prophylactic vaccines designed to prevent new infections, therapeutic vaccines aim to eradicate or treat existing HPV infections, as well as HPV-associated precancers and cancers. This review focuses on clinical studies involving therapeutic HPV vaccines for cervical cancer, specifically in three key areas: the treatment of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia; the treatment of cervical cancer in combination with or without chemotherapy, radiotherapy, or immune checkpoint inhibitors; and the role of prophylaxis following completion of treatment. Currently, there are no approved therapeutic HPV vaccines worldwide; however, active progress is being made in clinical research and development using multiple platforms such as peptides, proteins, DNA, RNA, bacterial vectors, viral vectors, and cell-based, each offering relative advantages and limitations for delivering HPV antigens and generating targeted immune responses. We outline preferred vaccine parameters, including indications, target populations, safety considerations, efficacy considerations, and immunization strategies. Lastly, we emphasize that therapeutic vaccines for HPV that are currently under development could be an important new tool in fighting against cervical cancer.

Educational intervention to increase childhood immunization uptake in rural Pakistan

Background: Childhood immunization uptake in rural Pakistan is low, due mostly to myths and misunderstanding regarding its importance. Aim: To determine the effect of an educational intervention on childhood immunization uptake for infants aged ≤ 16 weeks in 5 rural districts of Sindh Province, Pakistan. Methods: This quasi-experimental study was conducted from September 2023 to January 2024 among parents of 1200 children aged 3–5 weeks enrolled in intervention and control villages. Education campaigns that included face-to-face sessions and distribution of print and video information materials were conducted with families of children in the intervention group. Multivariable Cox regression was used to assess the effect of the intervention on immunization uptake. Results: After the initial immunization at birth, 19.8% of infants in the intervention villages and 24.8% in the control villages had not completed their Expanded Programme on Immunization vaccinations at age 16 weeks. Children in the intervention villages were significantly more likely to have been completely vaccinated at 14 weeks. Age, gender, household monthly income, place of birth, maternal education, and distance from immunization facility were not significantly associated with uptake. Conclusion: Educational interventions, including use of social media, can help increase childhood immunization uptake in rural areas of developing countries like Pakistan.

Compartmental Models Driven by Renewal Processes: Survival Analysis and Applications to SVIS Epidemic Models

Compartmental models with exponentially distributed lifetime stages assume a constant hazard rate, limiting their scope. This study develops a theoretical framework for systems with general lifetime distributions, modeled as transition rates in a renewal process. Applications are provided for the SVIS (Susceptible-Vaccinated-Infected-Susceptible) disease epidemic model to investigate the impacts of hazard rate functions (HRFs) on disease control. The novel SVIS model is formulated as a non-autonomous nonlinear system (NANLS) of ordinary differential equations (ODEs), with coefficients defined by HRFs. Key statistical properties and the basic reproduction number () are derived, and conditions for the system’s asymptotic autonomy are established for specific lifetime distributions. Four HRF behaviors—monotonic, bathtub, reverse bathtub, and constant—are analyzed to determine conditions for disease eradication and the asymptotic population under these scenarios. Sensitivity analysis examines how HRF behaviors shape system trajectories. Numerical simulations illustrate the influence of diverse lifetime models on vaccine efficacy and immunity, offering insights for effective disease management.

Optimize surveillance, prevention and control, vaccine strategies to respond to seasonal epidemics of respiratory infectious diseases

The prevalence and evolution of respiratory pathogens are changing, and issues related to drug-resistance are becoming increasingly prominent in the post-COVID era. The urgency of controlling respiratory pathogens has intensified. This issue organizes expert discussions to address the resurgence of various respiratory pathogens, summarizing current status of pathogen surveillance, drug-resistance research and vaccine development, while suggesting countermeasures. It emphasizes the need to integrate of medical and preventive measures, conduct multi-pathogen surveillance and management, enhance the response capacity of respiratory infectious diseases, optimize vaccine policy and immunization services, improve the level of diagnosis and treatment, and strengthen protection for vulnerable populations, so as to reduce the burden of respiratory infectious diseases.

Exploring the Potential of Nanocarriers for Cancer Immunotherapy: Insights into Mechanism, Nanocarriers, and Regulatory Perspectives.

Immunotherapy is a cutting-edge approach that leverages sophisticated technology to target tumor-specific antibodies and modulate the immune system to eradicate cancer and enhance patients' quality of life. Bioinformatics and genetic science advancements have made it possible to diagnose and treat cancer patients using immunotherapy technology. However, current immunotherapies against cancer have limited clinical benefits due to cancer-associated antigens, which often fail to interact with immune cells and exhibit insufficient therapeutic targeting with unintended side effects. To surmount this challenge, nanoparticle systems have emerged as a potential strategy for transporting immunotherapeutic agents to cancer cells and activating immune cells to combat tumors. Consequently, this process potentially generates an antigen-specific T cells response that effectively suppresses cancer growth. Furthermore, nanoplatforms have high specificity, efficacy, diagnostic potential, and imaging capabilities, making them promising tools for cancer treatment. However, this informative paper delves into the various available immunotherapies, including CAR T cells therapy and immune checkpoint blockade, cytokines, cancer vaccines, and monoclonal antibodies. Furthermore, the paper delves into the concept of theragnostic nanotechnology, which integrates therapy and diagnostics for a more personalized treatment approach for cancer therapy. Additionally, the paper covers the potential benefits of different nanocarrier systems, including marketed immunotherapy products, clinical trials, regulatory considerations, and future prospects for cancer immunotherapy.

Surveillance of Adverse Events Following Varicella Vaccine Immunization in Zhejiang Province, China, from 2020 to 2022.

Background: China has a high incidence rate of varicella yet a low coverage rate of the varicella vaccine (VarV), with safety concerns being a leading cause of the lack of vaccination willingness. This study aimed to describe VarV-related adverse events following immunization (AEFIs) and analyze their characteristics in Zhejiang, China, 2020-2022. Methods: VarV-related AEFIs in Zhejiang Province from 1 January 2020 to 31 December 2022 were collected through the Chinese National AEFI Information System (CNAEFIS) for a descriptive epidemiological analysis. Results: From 2020 to 2022, a total of 1477 VarV-related AEFI cases were reported (incidence rate: 34.79/100,000). The three most frequently reported clinical symptoms of common adverse reactions were fever, redness, and induration at the vaccination site. The distribution of VarV-related AEFIs varied significantly by age, dose, severity, and season. VarV-related AEFIs were more likely to be non-severe adverse events that occurred in the summer and winter seasons following the first dose of vaccine and among those under 3 years old. The top three regions with the highest incidence rates were Lishui City (59.53/100,000), Quzhou City (41.05/100,000), and Jinhua City (40.43/100,000). Most of the cases achieved full recovery without treatment (96.21%), and the rest were successfully treated without any sequelae. Conclusions: VarV demonstrates a safe profile in Zhejiang Province. Most VarV-related AEFIs are common reactions without requiring treatment, and the rates of rare and severe AEFIs remain low. Consistent monitoring, investigation, and diagnosis are needed to guide future VarV research and vaccination strategy adjustment. Our findings call for more policy changes, such as integrating VarV into China's National Immunization Program and conducting more trials to evaluate the safety and effectiveness of VarV.

COVID-19 Vaccine Booster Dose Fails to Enhance Antibody Response to Omicron Variant in Reinfected Healthcare Workers.

The emergence of new variants and diverse vaccination regimens have raised uncertainty about vaccine effectiveness against SARS-CoV-2. This study aims to investigate the impact of Omicron primo-/reinfection and primary vaccination schedules on the immunogenicity of an mRNA-based booster dose over a six-month period. We conducted a prospective cohort study to assess the durability and level of antibodies of 678 healthcare workers fully vaccinated against COVID-19. They were categorized based on their primary vaccination regimen. Blood samples were collected before the booster dose and 1 and 6 months after. Significant Anti-S-RBD differences were found between previously infected and naïve volunteers (p = 0.01). Considering the initial vaccine schedules, mRNA-based vaccines displayed significant higher antibody production and longer persistence among both infected and naïve participants. After the booster dose, participants primoinfected with the Omicron variant exhibited higher antibody concentrations than those who experienced reinfection, even after 6 months of follow-up (22,545 and 9460 U/mL, respectively). Moreover, these groups showed the most pronounced disparity in antibody titers ratios between infected and uninfected individuals. Overall, the booster dose failed to enhance humoral response in individuals reinfected with the Omicron variant after receiving it. Hybrid immunity and mRNA-based vaccine initial schedules showed higher levels and longer persistence of antibodies.

Effectiveness of mRNA COVID-19 vaccines and hybrid immunity in preventing SARS-CoV-2 infection and symptomatic COVID-19 among adults in the United States.

Understanding protection against SARS-CoV-2 infection by vaccine and hybrid immunity is important for informing public health strategies as new variants emerge. We analyzed data from three cohort studies spanning September 1, 2022-July 31, 2023, to estimate COVID-19 vaccine effectiveness (VE) against SARS-CoV-2 infection and symptomatic COVID-19 among adults with and without prior infection in the United States. Participants collected weekly nasal swabs, irrespective of symptoms, annual blood draws, and completed periodic surveys, which included vaccination status and prior infection history. Swabs were tested molecularly for SARS-CoV-2. VE was estimated using Cox proportional hazards models for the hazard ratios of infections, adjusting for covariates. VE was calculated considering prior infection and recency of vaccination. Among 3,344 adults, adjusted VE of bivalent vaccine against infection was 37.2% (95% CI: 12.3-55.7%) within 7-59 days of vaccination and 21.1% (95% CI: -0.5-37.1%) within 60-179 days of vaccination compared to participants who were unvaccinated/received an original monovalent vaccine dose ≥180 days prior. Overall, adjusted VE of bivalent vaccine against infection, in conjunction with prior infection, was 62.2% (95% CI: 46.0-74.5%) within 7-179 days of vaccination and 39.4% (95% CI: 12.5-61.6%) ≥180 days compared to naïve participants who were unvaccinated/received a monovalent vaccine dose ≥180 days prior. Adults with both prior infection and recent vaccination had high protection against infection and symptomatic illness. Recent vaccination alone provided moderate protection.

Improved Uptake of Vaccinations in Children With Adverse Events Following Immunization After Specialist Immunization Service Intervention in an Australian Pediatric Hospital.

Adverse Events Following Immunization (AEFI) have significant implications for public health, potentially leading to decreased immunization rates and vaccine hesitancy. Understanding the characteristics and outcomes of children experiencing AEFI is crucial for effective intervention strategies and informed decision-making. This study aimed to describe the diverse range of AEFI presentations, identify common referral sources and assess factors influencing vaccination uptake following specialist consultation. A single-center retrospective cohort study was conducted from 2019 to 2022, analyzing AEFI data from 191 children referred to a Specialist Immunization Service (SIS) at an Australian pediatric health service. Demographic data, referral details, vaccination history, and AEFI types were considered. Statistical analyses, including univariate and multivariate models, were employed to predict vaccination outcomes post-SIS consultation. The median age of children referred was 2 years. General practitioners were the major referral source (68%). Urticarial rash was the most prevalent AEFI referred (29%). Pneumococcal conjugate vaccine was the most implicated vaccine (38%). The majority (69%) were successfully vaccinated following SIS consultation with 3% experiencing a subsequent AEFI (all mild). Older age is found to be associated with less likelihood for vaccination (odds ratio = 0.93, 95% confidence interval: 0.88-0.99, P = 0.027). Formal reporting of AEFI was low (26%). Severe adverse events, including anaphylaxis, were rare, and a SIS played an important role in vaccinating children following AEFI. Vaccination following urticarial rash is likely safe, and options such as a drop-in immunization center in a hospital setting may reduce delay to the next dose in scheduled vaccinations following AEFI. AEFI reporting needs to be promoted, and a patient-initiated reporting system may enhance this.

Self-amplifying RNA virus vectors for drug delivery.

Viral vectors have proven useful for delivering genetic information, such as drugs and vaccines, for therapeutic and prophylactic interventions. Self-amplifying RNA viruses possess the special feature of high-level RNA amplification in the host cell cytoplasm providing high antigen production against infectious pathogens and various types of cancers, and expression of anti-tumor genes, toxic genes, and immunostimulatory genes. Self-amplifying RNA viral vectors have been evaluated in animal models and clinical trials for immune responses and protection against challenges with pathogenic infectious agents and tumor cells. Likewise, immune responses, tumor regression, and tumor eradication have been monitored in preclinical and clinical settings. The literature search used in the review is based on PubMed and clinical trial/biotechnology company websites up until September 2024. Self-amplifying RNA viruses have elicited strong immune responses and vaccine efficacy in animal models and humans leading to the approval of the vesicular stomatitis virus-based vaccine against Ebola virus disease in both the US and Europe. Moreover, therapeutic and prophylactic efficacy has been demonstrated in animal tumor models and cancer patients. Self-amplifying RNA viruses have also been evaluated in mouse models for neurological disorders.

The Role of Immunotherapy in Lung Cancer Treatment: Current Strategies, Future Directions, and Insights into Metastasis and Immune Microenvironment.

Lung cancer is a leading cause of mortality worldwide. Immunotherapy has emerged as a potentially effective strategy, as traditional medicines have shown minimal success. This review investigates the current state of immunotherapy for lung cancer treatment, focusing on its mechanisms, clinical applications, strategies, and future directions. This study focuses on the different characteristics of non-small and small-cell lung cancer to emphasize the need for targeted treatment strategies. In non-small cell lung cancer, immune checkpoint inhibitors that target PD-1, PDL1, and CTLA-4 have shown a strong therapeutic benefit and increased survival rates. The complex interactions among tumor cells, immune cells, and the tumor microenvironment significantly impact the outcome of immunotherapy. The determination of predicting biomarkers and conquering resistance requires an understanding of the tumor microenvironment. This study addresses a range of immunotherapeutic strategies, such as immune modulators, monoclonal antibodies, and cancer vaccines. The combination approaches are being explored to enhance treatment effectiveness and address resistance mechanisms that integrate immunotherapy with other modalities. Despite advancements, challenges still exist. The identification of reliable biomarkers, regulating immune- related adverse effects, and the overcoming of limitations in treating metastatic disease require more investigation. Future research directions should include exploring the immune microenvironment, developing personalized treatment strategies based on tumor profiles, and integrating new technologies for patient screening. Immunotherapy holds immense potential to modify lung cancer treatment and enhance clinical results.