Immobility Reactions Research Articles

Prophylactic effects of dietary ascorbic acid on oxidative stress indices, physiological and behavioural responses of domestic pigeons exposed to road transport stress.

Transport disturbs birds’ welfare and health status which lead to oxidative stress and dietary ascorbic acid mitigates the adverse effects of transport stress. The present study was aimed to evaluate the impacts of ascorbic acid administration on oxidative stress indices, cortisol, H/L ratio, tonic immobility reaction and rectal temperature of pigeons exposed to road transport. A total of 80 clinically healthy pigeons were selected and randomly divided to eight equal groups as follow: (1) Ctrl–: fed by basal diet and no subjected to transport stress; (2) Ctrl+: fed by the basal diet and subjected to transport stress; (3, 4) 1DBS10 and 1DBS16: received ascorbic acid from 1 day before transport stress at doses of 10 g/100 L and 16 g/100 L of drinking water, respectively; (5, 6) 3DBS10 and 3DBS16: treated with ascorbic acid from 3 consecutive days before transport stress at doses of 10 g/100 L and 16 g/100 L, respectively and (7, 8) 7DBS10 and 7DBS16: received ascorbic acid from 7 consecutive days before the transport at doses 10 g/100 L and 16 g/100 L, respectively. Birds were transported for 3 h over a distance of about 200 km. The total antioxidant capacity, malondialdehyde and cortisol were measured before transport and at 6, 24 and 72 h post‐transportation. The rectal temperature and tunic immobility reactions were recorded. Dietary ascorbic acid led to a decrease in tonic immobility response, hetrophil to lymphocyte ratio, circulating cortisol and total antioxidant capacity, and an increase in circulating malondialdehyde in pigeons exposed to transport stress compare to Ctrl+ group. In conclusion, ascorbic acid administration at dose 16 g/100 L of drinking water from 3 and 7 days before exposure to stress helps attenuate undesirable effects of oxidative stress in pigeons.

Effect of Vitamin C, Shackling and Crating Stress on Tonic Immobility Reactions of Broiler Chickens in Preslaughter

Effect of Vitamin C, Shackling and Crating Stress on Tonic Immobility Reactions of Broiler Chickens in Preslaughter

Effects of Supplemental Vitamin C and Chromium on Metabolic and Hormonal Responses, Antioxidant Status, and Tonic Immobility Reactions of Transported Broiler Chickens

Three hundred female broilers were assigned to five groups with six replicates and were fed with either a basal diet (two control groups) or the basal diet supplemented with 800-mg vitamin C/kg (Vit C group), 1,200-μg Cr(+3) from chromium (Cr) chloride/kg (Cr group) or 800-mg Vit C and 1,200-μg Cr(+3) from Cr chloride/kg (Vit C + Cr group) from 42 to 49 days of age. Treatments did not affect performance. Transport decreased insulin level in the control and Cr groups and increased glucose/insulin (G/I) ratio in the groups. The level of insulin was higher in the Vit C + Cr group than those in the control and Cr groups after the transport. The G/I ratio was lowest in the Vit C + Cr group after the transport. The transport significantly decreased triiodothyronine (T3) concentration in the groups except the Vit C + Cr group and only increased thyroxin (T4) concentration in the Vit C + Cr group. The T3/T4 ratio was significantly decreased in the groups except the Cr group by transport. The T3/T4 ratio was greatest in the Vit C + Cr group before the transport. Alkaline phosphatase activity was decreased in the Vit C + Cr group due to transport. Transport decreased triglyceride levels in the groups and also decreased low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in the Vit-C-supplemented groups. Transport increased malondialdehyde concentration in the control and Vit C groups and also increased glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity in the Cr-fed groups. The GPx activity was higher in the Vit C + Cr group than those in the control and Cr groups after the transport. Ferric reducing/antioxidant power (FRAP) value was decreased in the Vit C and Cr groups by transport. Either alone or in combination, Cr increased the FRAP value before the transport. Neither transport nor treatments had significant effects on the duration of tonic immobility (TI) and number of inductions to induce TI.

Rearing broiler chickens under monochromatic blue light improve performance and reduce fear and stress during pre-slaughter handling and transportation

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of monochromatic light on broiler performance, fear and stress response during pre-slaughter handling and transportation. Two thousand unsexed one-day old Cobb broiler chicks were used. At day 34, two hundreds broilers of similar live body weight were selected and divided into two equal groups (2 group x 5 replicates). Broilers were reared under white light (WL) from 0-34 day. From 35 to 49 day, the first group was reared under WL and the second group under blue light (BL). Final body weight (FBW), tonic immobility reactions (TI), respiratory rate (RR), heterophils to lymphocytes (H/L) ratio and interlukien-1? (IL-1?) were estimated at day 49 before and after transportation. After transportation, weight of internal organs (liver, spleen, heart and bursa of fabricius) as a percentage of FBW was calculated. Results showed that there was a significant (P<0.05) increase in FBW and reduced weight loss due to transportation in broilers reared under BL. In broilers reared under BL: TI duration, RR, H/L ratio, IL-1? and weight of internal organs (except the heart) were significantly (P < 0.05) lower. The interaction effect of light and transportation on TI duration, RR, lymphocytes, H/L ratio and IL-1? were significant (P < 0.05). Therefore, it is suggested that BL may be a good tool for improving welfare and mitigating stress not only in pre-slaughter handling but also during transportation of broilers.

The impact of domestication on fearfulness: A comparison of tonic immobility reactions in wild and domesticated finches

We examined differences in the fear response between Bengalese finches and their wild ancestor, the white-backed munia, to explore the evolutionary mechanisms of behavioural changes due to domestication. The Bengalese finch (Lonchura striata var. domestica) was domesticated from the wild-living white-backed munia (L. striata) approximately 250 years ago. A previous study indicated that Bengalese finches sing much more complex songs than white-backed munias. We hypothesised that Bengalese finches are likely able to allocate more resources to reproduction in exchange for reduced survival effort. We measured tonic immobility (TI) reactions as a response to physical restraint to evaluate fearfulness related to coping with predation. The results showed that Bengalese finches exhibited decreased TI responses compared with white-backed munias. TI responses were unaffected by sex, body weight or growth conditions. These differences suggest that the fearfulness in Bengalese finches has been reduced by selective pressure during domestication. Bengalese finches may have been able to increase the investment of energy in reproduction in exchange for reduced costs of predation and coping necessary to survive in the wild; these behavioural changes may have been a major target of domestication effects in this species.

Crating and heat stress influence blood parameters and heat shock protein 70 expression in broiler chickens showing short or long tonic immobility reactions

Two hundred thirty-five 1-d-old broiler chickens showing short or long tonic immobility responses were classified as low fear (LF) or high fear (HF) responders, respectively. On d 41, they were subjected to either crating or heat challenge (34 ± 1°C) for 3 h and its effect on plasma corticosterone concentration, heterophil/lymphocyte ratios, and heat shock protein (HSP) 70 expression in brain tissue were determined. Crating and heat exposure elevated heterophil/lymphocyte ratios in both LF and HF birds. Circulating corticosterone, however, was greater in HF than LF birds after crating and heat challenge. Although differences between fear responder group for HSP 70 were negligible before heat challenge, after 3 h of heat exposure, the response was greater for the HF than the LF group. Both LF and HF showed similar increases in HSP 70 after crating.

Effects of Early Age Feed Restriction and Dietary Ascorbic Acid on Heterophil/ Lymphocyte and Tonic Immobility Reactions of Transported Broiler Chickens

Broiler chickens were subjected to (i) pre-treatment for 24 h with 1,200 ppm L-ascorbic acid in their drinking water on day 42 (AA), (ii) 60% feed restriction on days 4, 5 and 6 (FR), (iii) combination of AA and FR (AAFR), or (iv) neither treatment (control). On day 43, the birds were crated and transported in an open truck for either 60 min or 120 min. Heterophil/ lymphocyte ratios (HLR) were determined prior to (T0) and 20 h following the 60 min (T60) and 120 min (T120) journeys. Prior to transportation, all treatment groups had similar HLR. Following T 60, the AAFR chicks had smaller increase in HLR than their control, AA and FR counterparts. The AA, FR and AAFR birds exhibited lower HLR than controls following T120. The means HLR of AA, FR and AAFR did not differ significantly. Irrespective of journey time, AA and AAFR birds had shorter tonic immobility duration than their FR and control counterparts. The tonic immobility duration of all birds increased with journey duration.

Influence of light-dark schedules and stocking density on behaviour, risk of leg problems and occurrence of chronic fear in broilers

1. The aims of this study were to determine (1) the effect of light-dark schedules on the walking ability, the risk of tibial dyschondroplasia (TD) as well as the duration of tonic immobility (TI) reactions in commercial broiler flocks and (2) the effect of a daily dark period and reduced density on the behaviour of broiler chickens. 2. Experiment 1. Group 1 had a 2 to 8 h daily dark period from 2 to 26 d of age (light-dark programme A) at a stocking density of 28.4 chicks/m 2 . Group 2 had 8 h of darkness daily from 2 to 38 d of age (light-dark programme B) at 24 chicks/ m 2 . The control group had 24 h continuous light at 28.4 chicks/m 2 . 3. Experiment 2. Behaviour was studied with and without a daily 8 h dark period and at high (30 chicks/m 2 ) and low (18 chicks/m 2 ) stocking densities. 4. Programme B reduced the prevalence of impaired walking ability, corresponding to gait score > 2, when compared with controls. The effect on walking ability corresponding to gait score > 0 approached significance. 5. Both light-dark programmes reduced the occurrence of TD. Programme B (combined with reduced stocking density), however, had the greater effect. 6. Both light-dark programmes reduced the duration of TI, compared with controls (mean = 426 s) Programme B resulted in a larger reduction ( α = -156.9 s) than programme A ( α = -117.0). 7. The proportions of chicks drinking, eating, pecking, scratching, standing and performing vertical wing-shakes increased - both when the 8 h dark period and the reduced stocking density were applied separately and in combination (experiment 2). 8. For all behaviours, except standing, the effect of the dark period was largest in broilers kept at the high stocking density (d 40).

Heterophil to lymphocyte ratio and tonic immobility reactions to preslaughter handling in broiler chickens treated with ascorbic acid

Stress and fear responses were evaluated in broiler chicks that were pretreated for 24 h with 0 ppm (control) or 1,200 ppm of L-ascorbic acid (AA) in their drinking water. The birds were subsequently subjected to either upright handling (UH) or inverted (IH) handling for about 45 s. Heterophil (H) counts, lymphocyte (L) counts, and H/L ratios (H/L) ratios were determined immediately (T0) and at 20 h (T20) following the handling treatment. The H/L ratios were similar for both groups at T0, whereas 20 h after the handling treatment, AA-supplemented birds had lower ratios than controls, resulting in a significant water treatment × time of blood sampling interaction. Inverted handling had negligible effect on H/L ratios but augmented tonic immobility (TI) durations as compared with UH. Irrespective of handling procedure, supplemental AA reduced underlying fearfulness, as measured by TI reaction. Neither water treatment nor handling method had significant effect on number of attempts to induce TI.

Adoption of immobility by shackled broiler chickens: effects of light intensity and diverse hooding devices

Chickens often struggle violently and injure themselves when they are suspended from shackles, a practice which is commonly used when farmers or veterinarians need to examine representative birds from the flock. Covering the heads of restrained chickens and other birds with a hood is thought to strengthen immobility reactions but the influential variables were poorly understood. The present study measured struggling, vocalization and respiration in broiler chickens which were inverted and suspended from shackles in one of a number of test situations. In Experiment 1, 42-day-old, non-hooded broiler chickens were shackled individually at one of four light intensities (< 2, 5, 50 or 200 lux). This allowed us to determine if low light levels per se were sufficient to minimize struggling. In Experiment 2, 45-day-old broilers were shackled in daylight (250–300 lux) following the application of an opaque cotton hood, a transparent nylon net hood, or a simple drawstring fastened around the neck. Non-hooded birds served as controls in Experiment 2. The studies yielded four main findings. Firstly, neither the vocal nor the struggling responses of non-hooded, shackled broilers were influenced by substantial variations in ambient light intensity. Secondly, struggling and vocalization were virtually eliminated if the birds' heads were covered with an opaque hood before shackling; these findings confirmed our previous observations. Thirdly, although the opaque hood was the most potent device, both a transparent hood and a drawstring fitted around the neck also promoted the adoption of silence and immobility. Fourthly, there were no detectable treatment effects on respiration rate and, hence, presumably, on the ease of breathing. Collectively, the present findings suggest that both the tactile properties of hoods and their components as well as their ability to impair patterned vision contributed to the adoption of immobility by shackled broiler chickens, but that the latter variable was the most influential. The strategic relevance of the present findings is discussed in terms of the welfare, not only of chickens shackled at the farm for examination, but also of the staff at processing plants.

Open-field and tonic immobility responses in domestic chicks of two genetic lines differing in their propensity to feather peck.

1. The open-field and tonic immobility reactions of female domestic chicks of 2 genetic lines which showed high (HP) or low (LP) levels of feather pecking were compared. 2. Chicks of the LP line showed less freezing, and vocalised and walked sooner and more in the open field than did their HP counterparts. 3. There were no differences between lines in the durations of their tonic immobility responses, at least in the present study. 4. The pattern of results may reflect line divergence in underlying social motivation rather than fearfulness.

Restraint, fear, and distress in Japanese quail genetically selected for long or short tonic immobility reactions

Japanese quail genetically selected for long (LTI) rather than short (STI) tonic immobility reactions showed more pronounced overt fear-responses in a number of putatively frightening situations. Greater fear has also been found in Japanese quail selected, in an independent program, for exaggerated (HS, high stress) rather than reduced (LS, low stress) plasma corticosterone response to brief mechanical restraint. The present study examined tonic immobility (TI) and adrenocortical responses in male and female quail of the LTI, STI and CON (control) lines which had either remained undisturbed or had been briefly exposed to a mechanical restraint stressor similar to that used for selection of the HS and LS lines. Behavioral strategies during restraint differed across lines, i.e., struggling followed the pattern STI > CON > LTI. The LTI quail showed more pronounced TI reactions than did CON and STI birds. Mechanical restraint prolonged subsequent TI responses and markedly elevated plasma corticosterone concentrations in all lines, but there were no line x treatment interactions. The results are discussed in terms of the parallels between the four selected lines and of the likelihood that the independent selection programs may have affected the same intervening variable.

Audiogenic immobility reaction and open-field behavior in AA and ANA rat lines

Individual predispositions in emotional reactivity have been suggested as factors involved in the development of alcoholism. To approach this problem, we assessed emotional reactivity in alcohol-naive animals from the alcohol-preferring (AA) and alcohol-avoiding (ANA) rat lines of Alko Ltd. AA rats are known to have higher brain levels of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) than ANA rats. Emotional reactivity was therefore assessed by an audiogenic immobility reaction (freezing), which is specifically sensitive to and shortened by depletion of 5-HT. The results showed that AA rats of both sexes displayed increased immobility reactions compared to the corresponding sex of the ANA rats. During the period of adaptation to the test cage ANA rats of both sexes showed increased locomotor activity compared to the corresponding sex of the AA rats. Levels of plasma corticosterone did not differ between the rat lines, either during resting or stressful conditions. The present results suggest that a passive, inhibited style of defensive behavior is associated with a high alcohol consumption.

Immobility reactions in socially behaving rabbits: Relation to hippocampal electrical activity

The presence of an intruder conspecific of the same sex caused a series of conflict reactions in rabbits living in a semi-natural environment. In some animals, defensive responses were predominant and two immobility reactions were observed. One consisted of freezing when the intruder was exploring at a distance; the other consisted of subdued posture in close contact with the intruder. Hippocampal EEG, recorded by telemetry, showed two different profiles. During freezing, rhythmic slow activity prevailed and during subdued posture an irregular pattern was predominant. Frequency increased when the intruder was in close contact with the resident. Aspects such as distance or behaviour of the intruder were found to affect both behavioural strategies and hippocampal electrical responses.

Effects of transportation on the tonic immobility fear reactions of broilers

Abstract 1. The fear levels of broilers arriving from slaughter at 4 commercial processing plants were assessed using tonic immobility (TI) tests. The relative effects of selected variables were also examined. 2. Neither the position of the birds on the lorry, nor their sex, nor the ambient temperature nor the identity of the experimeter exerted any significant effects on tonic immobility reactions. 3. Although the longest and shortest immobility responses followed transportation in the fixed crates and metal modules respectively, system comparisons may be confounded by variations in the birds’ genetic and/or experiential backgrounds. 4. Both journey duration and waiting time before transport bore an unambiguous and positive linear relationship with mean TI duration. The duration of transit was the major factor determining fear levels following both commercial and simulated journeys.

Adrenocortical and heterophil/lymphocyte responses to challenge in hens showing short or long tonic immobility reactions

1. Adult White Leghorn hens showing short or long tonic immobility reactions were classified as low-fear (LF) or high-fear (HF) responders, respectively. Following cannulation, their adrenocortical responsiveness to ACTH administration and the effects of chronic frustration induced by thwarting of feeding on plasma corticosterone concentrations and heterophil/lymphocyte (H/L) ratios were measured at regular intervals. 2. ACTH injection elicited significant and similar mean increases in circulating corticosterone concentrations in both the LF and HF groups. 3. Absolute H/L ratios were higher in HF than in LF hens after cannulation, although both groups showed similar proportional increases from pre-operation ratios. 4. Plasma corticosterone concentrations and H/L ratios were significantly increased at 20 h and 44 h respectively after the frustration of feeding regime began. Thus, adrenocortical activation preceded increases in H/L ratios but, whereas the elevated plasma corticosterone concentrations found after 20 h remained virtually constant thereafter, H/L ratios rose progressively throughout the 68 h frustration period. 5. There were no significant differences between groups in their plasma corticosterone and H/L responses to frustration. However, a consistent trend towards greater adrenocortical activation was observed in the HF than in the LF hens.

Ontogeny of immobility reactions elicited by clamping, bandaging, and maternal transports in rats

Wistar neonate rats assume a characteristic posture when being transported by the mother. This carrying posture is normally elicited by the pressure given by the mother's teeth on the pup's neck. By clamping or bandaging the neck and head an immobility reflex with flexion of body and limbs resembling the carrying posture is elicited when pups are in a supine position. On the contrary, by bandaging or by lightly clamping the pups in a prone position, a dorsiflexion with extension of forelimbs is elicited. Both clamping or bandaging inhibits contact and air righting. After a period of immobility bursts of activity follow. The characteristics of all the reactions described above depend on the age of the developing pups. It seems that the immobility reflex with ventroflexion of the body is a behavior used initially by pups to facilitate carrying by the mother, and by both pups and adults as a defense against predators. The posture adopted by the pups bandaged in the neck in a prone position is very similar to the posture they adopt while suckling from the mother. It is postulated that the weight of the mother when lying over the pups plus the pressure on the paws caused by their prone position, could be the stimulus that normally produces the suckling posture.

Immobility reactions: a modified classification.

This theoretical paper sets the stage for subsequent experimental reports on mobility and immobility in the Arkansas Line of Nervous Pointer dogs as contrasted with kennel mates of the normal line. Exactly opposite to the normal animals, the nervous dogs show marked inhibition of heart rate and musculoskeletal responses to man, including reduced ambulation and durable immobility following inversion and brief manual restraint in an open sling. The sling immobility of the nervous dogs (which may not differ basically from their freezing in upright position) might be designated as "tonic immobility" (TI). We hypothesize that such immobility, common in laboratory and natural conditions in many species, should be divided into two classes: hypotonic (cataleptic) and hypertonic (catatonic). We provide examples of such behaviors, particularly in man and dog, and cursorily review TI studies of other species. Neurophysiologic and neurochemical studies which bear on possible immobility mechanisms are briefly noted. We suggest that inconsistencies in reported concommitants of TI might result from failure to discriminate between types of behavioral responses.

Experimental novelty and tonic immobility in chickens ( [formula omitted

The tonic immobility reactions of individually-caged adult hens were observed in familiar or novel environments when the experimenter wore either a familiar or unfamiliar coat. Birds tested in isolation in an unfamiliar environment showed longer tonic immobility than did those tested in their familiar environment where they could still see and hear their neighbours. Tonic immobility was significantly prolonged in both test environments if the experimenter wore an unfamiliar coat. The potentiation of tonic immobility by novel aspects of the experimenter's appearance may thus be superimposed upon that elicited by social isolation and novelty of the physical environment.

Hippocampal lesions and immobility responses in the rat

The present study was conducted to compare the effects on several immobility reactions of hippocampal ablation in rats. Hippocampal lesions were found to increase significantly the duration of restraint-induced immobility, but these same lesions significantly increased movement in response to footshock and in an open field, indicating a reduction in the tendency for rats with hippocampal lesions to become immobile in these situations. These results are interpreted as indicating that hippocampal lesions in animals do not inevitably lead to a decreased tendency to become immobile in stressful situations and that the hippocampus in the adult rat inhibits behaviors which immature rats demonstrate more readily than mature rats.