360-degree Video Research Articles

Tasks Reflected in the Eyes: Egocentric Gaze-Aware Visual Task Type Recognition in Virtual Reality.

With eye tracking finding widespread utility in augmented reality and virtual reality headsets, eye gaze has the potential to recognize users' visual tasks and adaptively adjust virtual content displays, thereby enhancing the intelligence of these headsets. However, current studies on visual task recognition often focus on scene-specific tasks, like copying tasks for office environments, which lack applicability to new scenarios, e.g., museums. In this paper, we propose four scene-agnostic task types for facilitating task type recognition across a broader range of scenarios. We present a new dataset that includes eye and head movement data recorded from 20 participants while they engaged in four task types across 15 360-degree VR videos. Using this dataset, we propose an egocentric gaze-aware task type recognition method, TRCLP, which achieves promising results. Additionally, we illustrate the practical applications of task type recognition with three examples. Our work offers valuable insights for content developers in designing task-aware intelligent applications. Our dataset and source code are available at zhimin-wang.github.io/TaskTypeRecognition.html.

Measuring and Predicting Multisensory Reaction Latency: A Probabilistic Model for Visual-Auditory Integration.

Virtual/augmented reality (VR/AR) devices offer both immersive imagery and sound. With those wide-field cues, we can simultaneously acquire and process visual and auditory signals to quickly identify objects, make decisions, and take action. While vision often takes precedence in perception, our visual sensitivity degrades in the periphery. In contrast, auditory sensitivity can exhibit an opposite trend due to the elevated interaural time difference. What occurs when these senses are simultaneously integrated, as is common in VR applications such as 360° video watching and immersive gaming? We present a computational and probabilistic model to predict VR users' reaction latency to visual-auditory multisensory targets. To this aim, we first conducted a psychophysical experiment in VR to measure the reaction latency by tracking the onset of eye movements. Experiments with numerical metrics and user studies with naturalistic scenarios showcase the model's accuracy and generalizability. Lastly, we discuss the potential applications, such as measuring the sufficiency of target appearance duration in immersive video playback, and suggesting the optimal spatial layouts for AR interface design.

'In their shoes now'-immersive video gameplay and design thinking for building grief literacy.

'In their shoes now'-immersive video gameplay and design thinking for building grief literacy.

MNCATM: A Multi-Layer Non-Uniform Coding-Based Adaptive Transmission Method for 360° Video

With the rapid development of multimedia services and smart devices, 360-degree video has enhanced the user viewing experience, ushering in a new era of immersive human–computer interaction. These technologies are increasingly integrating everyday life, including gaming, education, and healthcare. However, the uneven spatiotemporal distribution of wireless resources presents significant challenges for the transmission of ultra-high-definition 360-degree video streaming. To address this issue, this paper proposes a multi-layer non-uniform coding-based adaptive transmission method for 360° video (MNCATM). This method optimizes video caching and transmission by dividing non-uniform tiles and leveraging users’ dynamic field of view (FoV) information and the multi-bitrate characteristics of video content. First, the video transmission process is formalized and modeled, and an adaptive transmission optimization framework for a non-uniform video is proposed. Based on this, the optimization problem required by the paper is summarized, and an algorithm is proposed to solve the problem. Simulation experiments demonstrate that the proposed method, MNCATM, outperforms existing transmission schemes in terms of bandwidth utilization and user quality of experience (QoE). MNCATM can effectively utilize network bandwidth, reduce latency, improve transmission efficiency, and maximize user experience quality.

What makes spherical video virtual reality popular in education? Evidence from a meta-analysis employing Stata

What makes spherical video virtual reality popular in education? Evidence from a meta-analysis employing Stata

Planar or Spatial: Exploring Design Aspects and Challenges for Presentations in Virtual Reality with No-coding Interface

The proliferation of virtual reality (VR) has led to its increasing adoption as an immersive medium for delivering presentations, distinct from other VR experiences like games and 360-degree videos by sharing information in richly interactive environments. However, creating engaging VR presentations remains a challenging and time-consuming task for users, hindering the full realization of VR presentation's capabilities. This research aims to explore the potential of VR presentation, analyze users' opinions, and investigate these via providing a user-friendly no-coding authoring tool. Through an examination of popular presentation software and interviews with seven professionals, we identified five design aspects and four design challenges for VR presentations. Based on the findings, we developed VRStory, a prototype for presentation authoring without coding to explore the design aspects and strategies for addressing the challenges. VRStory offers a variety of predefined and customizable VR elements, as well as modules for layout design, navigation control, and asset generation. A user study was then conducted with 12 participants to investigate their opinions and authoring experience with VRStory. Our results demonstrated that, while acknowledging the advantages of immersive and spatial features in VR, users often have a consistent mental model for traditional 2D presentations and may still prefer planar and static formats in VR for better accessibility and efficient communication. We finally shared our learned design considerations for future development of VR presentation tools, emphasizing the importance of balancing of promoting immersive features and ensuring accessibility.

A Model for Collaborative Immersive Classroom Management Development Using Multi-user Virtual Reality

Classroom management has been ­­identified as a key challenge in becoming a teacher, as newly qualified teachers are overwhelmed by the complexity of professional teaching practice. This paper explores the transformative potential of immersive technologies in fostering a collaborative reflection and problem-solving space for the continued development of newly qualified teachers’ classroom management competencies – allowing newly qualified teachers to become better prepared for facing the unexpected, local, and situated challenges of becoming a teaching professional. Through iterative cycles of design-based research, we have developed a model of immersive collaborative classroom management training using multi-user Virtual Reality. The model consists of four phases: (1) 360-degree video recording, creating an immersive version of the classroom and the complex interactions that occur within it. (2) clip selection, giving teachers the ability to select clips that are relevant for them and their practice. (3) Multi-user Virtual Reality training, allowing teachers to get feedback on their selected clips and construct actionable knowledge together with local teaching supervisors (4) Debriefing, for ensuring the joint understanding and transfer of knowledge to practice. Through analysing teacher’s and supervisors’ meaning making processes of 18 selected video clips across five multi-user Virtual Reality training sessions, we uncover three main phases: Analysis, Abstraction, and Actionability. By being able to collaboratively watch, re-watch, and discuss selected video clips and moving between these three main phases, teachers and supervisors co-create actionable knowledge, creating an improved understanding of current practices, and supporting the ability to transform future practices. These findings contribute both theoretical insights and practical implications for educators and learning designers, emphasising the importance of creating social immersive reflective spaces in which real situations may be revisited in order to examine the intricacies of classroom practices, allowing newly qualified teachers to better engage with their profession.

Prospective evaluation of extended reality for neonatal intubation education

Purpose360° immersive videos may be useful in procedure-based healthcare settings. We hypothesized that extended reality (XR) neonatal intubation education is a feasible alternative to live demonstration in skill and knowledge transfer.MethodsThis was a prospective single center evaluation of an educational XR intubation video using Premature Anne™ (Laerdal Medical, Stavanger, Norway) comparing to a live demonstration. Participants were randomly allocated to either live demonstration or XR group. Each group received 20 min of teaching from the pediatric respiratory care education specialist, either in person or in video format. Intubation success, knowledge and skill acquisition were measured using a questionnaire and checklist.ResultsWe had a total of 23 participants, XR (n = 11) and live demonstration (n = 12). The groups were heterogeneous in experience level.The XR group was successful at intubating 73% of the time (n = 8), which was not significantly different to the live demonstration group 58% (n = 7) (p = 0.667). For patients who achieved intubation, there was no difference between groups in the mean time to successful intubation; 98 s (SD 73) for the XR group and 65 s (SD 22) for the live demonstration group (p = 0.685).When comparing scores between groups there were no statistically significant differences regarding knowledge scores (p = 0.514), skill scores (p = 0.826) and total scores (p = 0.926).ConclusionThese preliminary findings indicated no significant differences between the XR and live demonstration groups in terms of intubation success, knowledge acquisition, skill performance, total scores or time to successful intubation.

Virtual reality for the management of pain and anxiety during outpatient manual vacuum aspiration for miscarriage or incomplete abortion: a mixed methods trial.

To evaluate the efficacy and acceptability of virtual reality (VR) as a distraction technique in the management of acute pain and anxiety during outpatient uterine aspiration using a manual vacuum aspirator (MVA). This mixed methods study included a prospective multi-centre randomised controlled trial and structured individual interviews. Of the 72 patients approached, 50 consenting, eligible participants were randomised to VR intervention (immersive video content 'The Forest of Serenity') or standard care during MVA for the management of miscarriage or incomplete abortion from July 2021-July 2022 across two university hospitals in London, UK. Expected and actual pain scores, and anxiety before and after the procedure were measured as numeric rating scores (0-10). Structured interviews were undertaken after the procedure in women randomised to VR. Statistical analysis of pain and anxiety scores were by intention-to-treat including all randomised participants, using Stata-12 software. Qualitative analysis was achieved by thematic analysis of transcribed interviews. There was no significant difference in pain or anxiety scores reported by participants randomised to VR compared with standard care. Mean worst pain scores were 5.98 and 6.88 in the standard care and VR groups respectively (p-value 0.13), with corresponding anxiety scores at the end of the procedure 3.94 and 3.3 (p-value 0.57). Qualitative analysis from interviews was highly favourable from women randomised to VR with all participants reporting a positive experience. 90% (18/20) of participants reported that VR reduced their anxiety and 71% (15/21) stated that it helped to reduce or distract from their pain. While virtual reality did not decrease pain or anxiety scores during MVA, it is a feasible and acceptable option that may improve patient experience. Randomisation to VR during MVA did not reduce pain or anxiety scores. However, at structured interview most participants reported that VR reduced their anxiety and reduced or distracted them from their pain. VR is a feasible and acceptable option that may improve patient experience during MVA.

The Impact of Immersive 360-Degree Video Learning on Enhancing Oral Communication Skills

This study investigates the pivotal role of immersive 360-degree video and its perceived advantages on the enhancement of oral communication skills within the framework of the ELC650 course, 'English for Professional Interaction'. The research involved twenty-four students enrolled in the Bachelor of Applied Language (Arabic Communication Professionals) (Hons) program. The distribution of questionnaires immediately after the students watched the video aimed to assess the role of immersive 360-degree video and its perceived advantages of this technology in preparing students for conducting assessments within a meeting discussion. Employing a cross-sectional design, the study collects both closed-ended and open-ended responses through the distributed questionnaires. The latter serves as a crucial means of triangulating the data, offering real-time insights into the students' understanding of professional interaction and assessment practices using 360-degree video. The study's findings on the use of 360-degree video in education can inform government decisions and contribute to achieving SDG 4, which aims to improve the quality of education. It is important for government and learning institutions to recognize and embrace the role of 360-degree video in enhancing learning quality, specifically in fostering communication skills within the area of professional interaction in English. Other than that, this study holds implications for refining curriculum design, shaping instructional strategies, and optimizing the integration of innovative technologies in language education, particularly for students specializing in Arabic communication.

Exploring perception and immersive experience of visually impaired people in 360° video and 3D ambisonic audio

For a long time, immersive experiences have been designed with primarily sighted users in mind. However, recent advancements open exciting possibilities for expanding this realm to include individuals with visual impairments such as Cataracts, Glaucoma, and Severe low visual. One promising avenue lies in utilizing 360-degree videos with 3D Ambisonic audio recordings to create immersive experiences specifically tailored to their unique perceptual abilities. In this context, this preliminary study investigates audio-visual perception and presence of visually impaired people (VIP) in immersive reality (IR) environments, by applying 360-degree video and 3D Ambisonic audio recordings in three different environments of a public park "Parking area, Green space, and Playground". The methodological approach of this study is based on a comparative study between sighted (SIG) and visually impaired people (VIP), by conducting questionnaires such as the presence questionnaire and the emotional salience questionnaire. The findings show that both categories can experience the same presence within the IR environment with a difference in the evaluation of the acoustic environment, where the visually impaired show a greater influence on mechanical sounds. By designing inclusive experiences for all, IR has the potential to be equally engaging and immersive for everyone, regardless of sight.

How does visual context of urban open spaces drive soundscape pleasantness and eventfulness: a laboratory experiment using a higher order Ambisonics speaker system and immersive virtual reality

Perception of sound environments is influenced by the context we experience them in. A big portion of the contextual information comes from the visual domain, including our understanding of what a place is but also from its visual features. A laboratory study combining questionnaire responses and eye-tracking tools was designed to investigate if the soundscape outcomes and participants' behaviour inside the simulation can be explained by the perceptual outcomes defined by visual information. 360 degree videos and First Order Ambisonics audio recordings of 27 different urban open spaces taken from the International Soundscape Database were used as the stimuli delivered via a Virtual Reality Head-Mounted Display and a Higher Order Ambisonics speaker array, while a neutral grey environment without sounds being reproduced represented the baseline scenario. A questionnaire tool was deployed within the IVR simulation to collect participants' responses describing their perception of the reproduced environments corresponding to the circumplex model featured in the Method A of the ISO/TS 12913-2. The results revealed a good coverage of the two-dimensional perceptual circumplex space and significant differences between perceptual outcomes driven by sound and those driven by visual stimuli.

Comparison between three different delivery technologies of virtual nature on psychological state related to general stress recovery: An experimental study

Visiting nature has been shown to have several benefits for psychological state related to general stress recovery. However, for many people, access to nature is limited. Technological development has made it possible to deliver nature environments virtually. The present study examines the benefits of a same virtual nature (forest) environment delivered through different technologies on psychological state related to general stress recovery, more precisely, on restoration, current stress, subjective vitality, and affective response. The main focus is on comparing three different delivery technologies of virtual nature: TV (75″), VR headset (Meta Quest 2), and virtual nature room (30m2). The study applies a three-condition randomized trial with pre-post assessments and a crossover design, where 62 participants visited once in each condition for a 15-minute exposure of virtual nature (360-degree video with congruent soundscape). The participants responded to psychological measures before and after each condition. Overall, participants’ restoration increased, while current stress and negative affect decreased during the exposure. In comparison to the TV (control) condition, both the VR headset condition and the virtual nature room condition had a better impact on psychological state related to general stress recovery, as restoration and subjective vitality increased more. There were no statistically significant differences between the VR headset and virtual nature room conditions in any of the measures.

Exploring diversity in PE teacher training: Immersive learning challenges & potentials

The aim of teacher training in PE is to teach subject-specific content and to promote a reflective attitude. This is particularly important in preparation for inclusive physical education (Meier et al., 2017). Additional, research shows that videography is an effective tool for prospective and practicing teachers (e.g. Walshe & Driver, 2019). Immersive teaching methods such as VR-based learning scenarios could further strengthen such methods (Huang et al., 2023). Based on this, questions arise about the learning-effective design features of immersive methods regarding complex learning objectives in teacher training. This contribution will present a sports didactics seminar that focuses on teaching reflection within the framework of diversity-sensitive sports didactics and initial exploratory results in this regard. Thereby reflection is understood as a mental mediation between practical experience, professional knowledge, and teachers’ convictions (Leonard, 2022). The explorative evaluation focusses on the question whether the immersive experience of physical education can be used as a starting point for a reflection process among (prospective) teachers and if so how the immersion experience influences the students' ability to reflect sensu Leonard (2022) by confronting them with 360° instructional videos. A control group design is pursued (360° technology vs. videography). Firstly, standardized questionnaires are used to assess the students’ sense of immersion directly after watching the 360° video resp. standard video. A T-Test is used to analyse the difference in sense of presence and sense of immersion between the groups. The analysis reveals a significant difference between the groups in the sense of presence (t(77) = −4.78, p < .001) and in the sense of immersion (t(77) = -5.85, p < .001). The 360° group shows significantly higher values in both areas. Secondly, the students’ attitudes towards inclusive physical education are evaluated (Meier et al., 2017), the data show no differences between the groups (e.g. t(75) = -0.09, p = .93). In contrast, the depth of reflection indicates qualitative differences which will be discussed in the contribution (Hatton & Smith, 1995). These first results regarding the feelings of presence and immersion, as well as noticing situations and their relationships to each other, will be reported and insights into the immersive PE scenarios will be provided. References Hatton, N., & Smith, D. (1995). Reflection in teacher education: Towards definition and implementation. Teaching and Teacher Education, 11(1), 33-49. https://doi.org/10.1016/0742-051X(94)00012-U Huang, Y., Richter, E., Kleickmann, T., & Richter, D. (2023). Virtual reality in teacher education from 2010 to 2020. In K. Scheiter, & I. Gogolin (Eds.), Bildung für eine digitale Zukunft (pp. 399-441). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-37895-0_16 Leonard, T. (2022). Reflexionsregime in Schule und Lehrerbildung. Zwischen guter Absicht und transintentionalen Folgen. In C. Reintjes, & I. Kunze (Eds.), Reflexionsregime in Schule und Lehrerbildung (pp. 77–93). Verlag Julius Klinkhardt. https://doi.org/10.25656/01:25404 Meier, S., Ruin, S., & Leineweber, H. (2017). HainSL – Ein Instrument zur Erfassung von Haltungen zu inklusivem Sportunterricht bei (angehenden) Lehrkräften [HainSL — A testing instrument to assess attitudes of (trainee) teachers regarding inclusive physical education lessons]. German Journal of Exercise and Sport Research, 47(2), 161–170. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12662-016-0429-9 Walshe, N., & Driver, P. (2019). Developing reflective trainee teacher practice with 360-degree video. Teaching and Teacher Education, 78, 97-105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2018.11.009

Virtual Reality in planning, design, and management of urban green and blue infrastructure

There is a need for new tools in urban planning, design, and management (urban PDM) of green-blue infrastructure (GBI) to better support resilience and sustainable development. Virtual Reality (VR) emerges as a potential tool in this context. GBI provides a diversity of ecosystem services that increase the capacity of urban environments to absorb change while continuing to develop (adaptive capacity), a key factor in resilience and sustainability. However, there is a lack of tools capable of effectively capturing and communicating the designs, functions, and uses of GBI. Despite this need, research on the contributions of VR as a tool in urban PDM of GBI remains limited. To address this gap, an exploratory experiment using inductive qualitative data analysis was conducted. Participants of different ages and with different expertise viewed 360-degree video clips from urban areas through VR, completed a questionnaire, and participated in interviews. The results showed that the 360-degree video VR experience enhanced participants’ understanding of the viewed sites. Specifically, participants paid attention to details, captured the context, responded by generating emotional engagement, identified site development potential, and described an immersive experience. These results align with key principles for the sustainable management of ecosystem services, such as participation, learning, diversity, place-making, and stewardship; and adaptive capacity aspects such as processes and results grounded in complexity-embracing creativity. Our analysis shows that 360-degree video VR can increase the understanding of complexities, connections, and nuances in the urban environment. We conclude that 360-degree video VR could serve as a valuable complement to traditional tools in urban PDM, enriching decision-making with information that can support adaptive capacity, resilience, and sustainability.

Virtual Reality in Cancer Care: Enhancing Knowledge and Reducing Anxiety about Chemotherapy among Patients and Caregivers.

Virtual reality (VR) technology has evolved from entertainment to significant applications in healthcare and education. Despite its potential, there is limited research on the role of VR in cancer care. This study investigates VR's ability to simulate the chemotherapy process, aiming to enhance patients' knowledge and mitigate anxiety associated with chemotherapy. Utilizing a two-arm, mixed-methods pre/post-survey design, the study measured changes in patients' anxiety and knowledge before and after exposure to a VR simulation. Participants (n = 267) engaged with VR simulations or interactive 360-degree videos depicting the chemotherapy process. Data analyses revealed a significant median increase in chemotherapy knowledge post-exposure to the VR content (z = 12.511, p < 0.001). Demographic factSors significantly influenced perceptions of VR realism and usefulness (p < 0.05). Additionally, VR exposure was correlated with reduced anxiety levels and improved treatment expectations (p < 0.05). Participants with higher post-understanding chemotherapy scores considered VR a useful tool for managing anxiety about chemotherapy and recommended VR for other medical procedures (p < 0.001). These findings underscore VR technology's potential as a valuable tool in cancer treatment, suggesting it can enhance patient education and reduce anxiety, thereby improving patient outcomes during cancer therapy.

Virtual Reality Combined With Psychoeducation to Improve Emotional Well-Being in Informal Caregivers of Alzheimer's Disease Patients: Rationale and Study Design of a Randomized Controlled Trial.

Care for community-dwelling people with dementia is frequently delegated to relatives, who find themselves in the role of informal caregivers with no practical management knowledge. This situation exposes caregivers to increased risk for emotional wellbeing. The current study aims to test whether the integration of the efficacy of an immersive virtual reality (VR) experience into an online psychoeducational program impacts caregiver empathy and therefore emotional wellbeing. One-hundred informal caregivers of mild-to-moderate Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients will be enrolled and randomly assigned to (i) an online psychoeducational program (control arm); or (ii) an online psychoeducational program integrated with VR (experimental arm). VR will consist of 360-degree videos involving the caregivers to an immersive experience of dementia symptoms from the patient's perspective. Before, after the intervention and after 2months, all participants will complete validated clinical scales for caregiver burden and anxiety (primary outcomes) and sense of competence and dispositional empathy (secondary outcomes). A subsample of 50 participants will also undergo MRI exam, including structural and functional (resting-state and task-functional MRI [fMRI]) sequences. The fMRI task paradigm will use emotional stimuli to evaluate the neural correlate of empathy, by stressing its cognitive and affective components. The main outcome will be the change in the clinical assessment; the secondary outcome will be the change in brain connectivity of networks subserving the empathic and emotional functioning. We expect that the psychoeducational program will decrease anxiety and stress, enabling caregivers to perceive themselves capable of managing AD patients at home, educating them on symptom handling and boosting their cognitive empathy. In the experimental intervention, the VR-based experience will act as an add-on to psychoeducation, leading to greater improvement in the assessed clinical dimensions. VR should, in fact, enable a deeper understanding of disease symptoms and improve caregivers' cognitive empathy. We expect that the experimental intervention will result in deeper comprehension of disease symptoms and further strengthen caregivers' cognitive empathy. At the neural level, we expect to observe increased activation in circuits subserving cognitive empathy and decreased activation in circuits underlying affective empathy. To the best of our knowledge, this will be the first randomized controlled trial assessing the effect of combining psychoeducational interventions with VR-based experience in caregivers, and assessing both clinical and imaging outcomes. Registered in ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT05780476).

EXPERIENCE MUSEOLOGY AND EPHESUS EXPERIENCE MUSEUM

In the rapidly changing world of the 21st century, museums are not only places where exhibits are stored, but also turn into experience centers that offer more opportunities to their visitors. As a concept created by this transformation, the experience museum offers visitors the opportunity to interact not only by watching the works, but also by experiencing the artifacts and historical processes. In addition, in this process, concepts such as experience museology and immersive reality have emerged with the use of technological tools such as AR (Augmented Reality), VR (Virtual Reality), MR (Mixed Reality), AI (Artificial intelligence), hologram, simulation and 360-degree video mapping. With the technologies used in the Ephesus Experience Museum, an immersive environment has been created that appeals to the visual or auditory senses of the audience. While visiting the museum in this immersive environment, visitors also experience the historical process by listening to it through audio guides. In this article, by focusing on the museums developed in line with technological possibilities, the Ephesus Experience Museum was visited and examined in the context of experience museology, and the data obtained from the literature review were tried to be analyzed by comparing them with the experience museums in the west. A different exhibition atmosphere has been created with the technological facilities used in the Ephesus Experience Museum. Visitors' experience of the museum has also increased the information opportunities. At the same time, the deficiencies of the Ephesus Experience Museum have been identified. Celsus (Selçuk) Library, one of the important structures of the ancient city of Ephesus, and other historical buildings were not included in the storytelling, and this created a lack of stories. It is thought that this deficiency can be achieved with QR code or augmented reality applications.

Plate size or plating? Effects of visual food presentation on liking, appetite, and food-evoked emotions in online and real-life contexts

The way food is presented can significantly influence liking, satiation, and emotional responses to food. This study explored these effects across two separate experiments by examining the impact of plate size (small vs. large) and plating style (high-stacked vs. spread) on participants’ liking, satisfaction, fullness, and food-evoked emotions when consuming chicken salad. In the first experiment, conducted online (n = 192), we used interactive 360-degree videos to simulate real-life experiences of chicken salads under the different conditions. The second experiment expanded this research into a real-life cafeteria setting (n = 176) where participants actually consumed the chicken salads. In this setting, salads served on a large plate with high-stacked plating received the highest ratings for liking, compared to the other conditions: small plate-high-stacked, small plate-spread, and large plate-spread. This condition also evoked the most positive food-related emotions, such as happiness, satisfaction, and relaxation, and was perceived as closest to the “ideal portion size.” Notably, the real-life experiment provided a better discrimination between the experimental conditions, with more intense and higher ratings on food-evoked emotions, liking, and willingness to pay compared to the online context. Real-life eating encompasses social interactions, sensory stimulation and post-ingestive effects, offering a richer and more accurate representation of actual eating experiences. These findings highlight the importance of real-life multi-modal measurement environments for obtaining accurate measures of food perception, acceptance and eating behaviours.

Interactivity and identity impact learners' sense of agency in virtual reality field trips

AbstractAgency, or the capacity to take intentional actions, is considered one of the primary affordances of virtual reality (VR) for learning. VR is expected to increase learners' agency because it allows for full‐body interactivity from a first‐person perspective, giving them novel ways of interacting with the digital environment. Yet, agency in immersive learning has not been well‐studied relative to other affordances like presence, and more evidence is needed to understand how varied media and designs heighten or diminish agency. This mixed‐method study addressed this need by developing and validating measures of sense of agency with 30 high school students who used VR field trips in their engineering class over four lessons. By comparing immersive videos to video game‐like interactive graphical environments, the study illustrates some of the complexities of agency in VR. The findings indicate agency is not a unidimensional construct nor is it equivalent to full‐body interactivity in VR as learners felt some types of agency when using immersive videos. Furthermore, learners' identities moderated associations between the type of VR media and their sense of agency, and agency did not change over time as the novelty of VR waned. These results suggest VR designers should consider varied ways of interacting in VR that are beneficial for learning. They also support the use of immersive videos when the educator's goal is to increase agency over learning or focus, and provide measures and direction for future research to assess the relationship between varied types of agency, features of VR experiences and learning outcomes. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic Virtual reality (VR) can enhance learning by giving learners a strong sense of presence in the virtual environment and giving them agency over their learning through novel forms of interactivity. Many studies have looked at increasing the learner's presence in VR, but fewer have assessed learners' agency. Prior work found the impact of increased interactivity on learning was mixed: sometimes it increased learning outcomes and motivation, other times it did not. What this paper adds This study develops and validates measures of learners' sense of agency within VR learning environments. This study finds that more interactivity in VR increases how much agency learners feel over their actions but not necessarily their agency over learning and attention. This study also finds variation in students' experiences of agency based on their culturally defined sense of self‐construal. Implications for practice and/or policy Practitioners interested in immersive learning technologies should consider the design of the media used rather than focusing only on the device's capability. Immersive videos may be effective tools for enhancing student agency, depending on the aims of the learning experience. Designers and educators should consider learners' identities such as self‐construal, and understand student experiences may vary.