Immersive Virtual Reality Research Articles

Unlocking the power of immersive learning: The FAIRI instructional design proposition for adaptive immersive virtual reality

Immersive Virtual Reality (IVR) is a promising tool for providing immersive and adaptive learning experiences by simulating realistic work environments and gathering data on learner's interactions to offer personalized instructional content. However, IVR-supported instruction presents unique challenges due to its heightened immersion, including managing the learner's cognitive load and self-regulation. Incorporating adaptivity into IVR can mitigate these challenges by regulating the complexity of the virtual environment, reducing cognitive strain, and maintaining learner focus through real-time feedback for both learners and instructors. However, recent reviews highlight the underutilization of adaptivity within IVR research, making it difficult to inform the design of adaptive IVR instruction.This paper proposes FAIRI, an instructional design for adaptive IVR in domain-specific training. FAIRI synthesizes recent IVR research relevant to the design of adaptivity for IVR through a purposive literature review, guided by the instructional design elements of the Four-Component Instructional Design-model (4C/ID) and Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS). The instructional design elements of the 4C/ID-model and ITS are evaluated for their potential viability and further refined for adaptive IVR-supported instruction based on recent IVR studies. Two key design principles are identified for adaptive IVR: limiting IVR to tasks that benefit from its heightened realism and leveraging its adaptive features to manage the intensity of the experience. Additionally, the application of FAIRI's design principles and elements are demonstrated through a forklift operator training case in IVR. FAIRI aims to catalyse further research into adaptivity for IVR by proposing and aligning promising instructional design elements for adaptive IVR instruction.

Multisensory Stimulation in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Disease: Case Report of an Innovative Proposal through Immersive Virtual Reality

Physical–cognitive stimulation has emerged as a promising strategy for improving the quality of life of patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). This case study reports on the use of immersive virtual reality (IVR) as a tool for multisensory stimulation in a woman with ALS (76 years old; 11 years since diagnosis; stage 2). The program consisted of IVR stimulation sessions (three sessions per week for 12 weeks). The results showed that the implementation of the program was feasible and safe (no adverse symptoms on the Simulator Sickness Questionnaire), as well as easy to execute (>80% on the System Usability Scale). Additionally, the participant reported improvements in aspects related to her mental health (44% depression and 20% anxiety) and improvements in her quality of life, and she also maintained her values in her functional capacity. This study presents novel and important findings by demonstrating the feasibility of implementing physical–cognitive stimulation programs with IVR in a person with ALS, allowing for multisensory stimulation with commercially available hardware and software and the generation of benefits in their health-related quality of life and mental health.

Exploring neural efficiency in spatial cognition: A comparative study of 3D visual stimuli in virtual reality across STEM and non-STEM fields

Spatial cognition plays a crucial role in our daily lives. The relationship between spatial abilities and mathematical performance is well-established, with visuospatial training offering significant benefits in academic STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) disciplines. Developing visuospatial training requires an objective evaluation of spatial cognition and consideration of various 3D displays. This study aims to compare the neural efficiency of STEM and non-STEM individuals during mental rotation tasks (MRT) in 3D and 2.5D conditions (pseudo 3D) using virtual reality (VR). For that, we propose a novel integrative assessment of spatial cognition by combining a cost-effective VR headset and functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Overall, the findings reveal that STEM individuals exhibit greater neural efficiency in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (PFC) while solving MRT in a VR environment compared to their non-STEM counterparts. Additionally, the study shows that there is no significant difference in performance between 3D and 2.5D stimuli, suggesting that both conditions are equally suitable for MRT in VR. One possible explanation is that immersive VR reduces the distinctions between 3D models and 2.5D images, considering MRT scores and PFC activity. This research underscores the practicality and relevance of using VR and fNIRS to evaluate visuospatial tasks and the potential to identify distinct student learning profiles and enhance spatial skills. Furthermore, it highlights the potential of 2.5D stimuli as a cost-effective alternative for learning applications in VR. Here, we demonstrated that modeling the same task in 3D and 2.5D conditions can compare how humans interact with visuospatial tests, providing insights into applying VR devices to develop spatial skills.

Experiences of People With Persistent Nonspecific Neck Pain Who Used Immersive Virtual Reality Serious Games in the Home Setting: A Qualitative Study.

The purpose of this study was to explore the experiences of individuals with persistent nonspecific neck pain who used immersive virtual reality (VR) serious games at home for 2weeks. In this descriptive qualitative study, semi-structured one-on-one interviews were conducted at the participant's home after the 2-week period. Interviews were analyzed using qualitative content analysis. Sample size was determined using the information power concept (where "information power" refers to the amount of relevant information the sample provides for addressing the research question). Eleven adults with continuous or recurrent nonspecific neck pain participated in the study. Three main categories were identified. The first revolves around the home environment, revealing that participants had mixed perceptions about being at home, yet held a positive perspective on the utilization of immersive VR in that setting. The second pertains to immersive VR as a novel technology, indicating its overall comfort, user-friendliness, and varying degrees of immersion and presence experienced by the participants. The third focuses on exercising in immersive VR, drawing comparisons with conventional exercises, exploring the facilitators and barriers to usage, and addressing various aspects of integrating this technology into rehabilitation. Immersive VR was deemed comfortable for almost all participants and easy to use. Participants found exercising in immersive VR motivating and enjoyable, compared to conventional exercises. The home environment proved suitable for using immersive VR, though challenges included autonomy and reduced human contact. Participants highlighted facilitators and barriers in using immersive VR serious games, as well as immersive VR's rehabilitation potential. They also underscored the crucial role of physical therapists for guidance, remote supervision, and personalized treatment. These findings could help clinicians to better understand the experiences of individuals with persistent nonspecific neck pain when using immersive VR, as well as its use at home. This understanding can improve patient care and optimize the effectiveness of immersive VR as a treatment method.

Immersive virtual reality and augmented virtuality in sport and performance psychology: Opportunities, current limitations, and practical recommendations.

Immersive virtual reality and augmented virtuality in sport and performance psychology: Opportunities, current limitations, and practical recommendations.

From knowledge to action: Assessing the effectiveness of immersive virtual reality training on safety behaviors in confined spaces using the Kirkpatrick model

Safety in the industrial sector is paramount, with national legislations establishing specific regulations to reduce accidents. These regulations emphasize risk removal and proper operator training as preventive measures. However, traditional training can be time-consuming and costly, leading companies to meet only the minimum requirements. In particular, confined spaces pose significant dangers, often resulting in fatal, cascading accidents due to a lack of proper safety procedures. Therefore, effective training is crucial to mitigate these risks.Advanced technologies like Immersive Virtual Reality (IVR) present new opportunities for cost-effective and extensive training campaigns by eliminating the risks associated with real environment training, offering a safe yet realistic experience.Despite the widespread adoption of IVR training applications in industrial research, there is a notable lack of systematic approaches to evaluate their effectiveness. Conducting such evaluations is crucial to ascertain their impact on essential training outcomes, including participant engagement, knowledge transfer, and enhanced safety behavior during work activities.To address this gap, we developed an IVR-based training platform for confined space safety procedures and established a systematic validation procedure using the Kirkpatrick model to assess its effectiveness compared to conventional training methods. Results demonstrate that IVR training provides an excellent user experience, better knowledge transfer than the traditional approach, and improved performance in simulated procedures, reducing execution errors and completion times. This dual focus on creating and validating the IVR system underscores its potential as an effective training tool in hazardous environments such as confined spaces, where proper training can prevent tragic fatalities.

The impact of virtual reality exposure on ocean connectedness and consumer responses to single-use packaging

Efforts to mitigate plastic packaging pollution include behavioural strategies aimed at shifting consumer perceptions and behaviour. Connectedness to nature, and more recently ocean connectedness, has been associated with pro-environmental intentions regarding single-use packaging. Two experimental studies were conducted to examine the potential of Virtual Reality (VR) technologies in promoting ocean connectedness and shifting consumer perceptions around packaging and its environmental qualities.To assess the influence of the VR content, in Study 1 (n = 94), participants were briefly exposed to an oceanic VR environment or an urban VR experience. Levels of ocean connectedness, both explicit and implicit, were measured after the VR manipulation using an Inclusion of Nature in Self (INS) measure and an Implicit Association Test (IAT). Participants then rated a variety of packaging options that were systematically manipulated in terms of type of raw material (e.g. plastic) and recyclability. The ocean VR condition showed higher levels of ocean connectedness on the adapted explicit INS measure, but not on the IAT measure, and there were no differences between the conditions in perceptions around packaging materials.Study 2 (n = 118) expanded on the previous study by adding a third condition: the participants were exposed to an oceanic VR environment, a built VR environment, or a non-VR task (cognitive task). The ocean VR condition showed higher levels of explicit ocean connectedness, as measured with the INS, than the other two conditions, but again there were no differences in implicit ocean connectedness. However, the ocean VR condition showed more critical perceptions around packaging overall in comparison to the built VR condition. We conclude that a brief immersive oceanic VR experience can influence explicit ocean connectedness, as measured with the INS, but its influence on packaging perceptions was more limited.

Ecological functional near-infrared spectroscopy in mobile children: using short separation channels to correct for systemic contamination during naturalistic neuroimaging.

The advances and miniaturization in functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) instrumentation offer the potential to move the classical laboratory-based cognitive neuroscience investigations into more naturalistic settings. Wearable and mobile fNIRS devices also provide a novel child-friendly means to image functional brain activity in freely moving toddlers and preschoolers. Measuring brain activity in more ecologically valid settings with fNIRS presents additional challenges, such as the increased impact of physiological interferences. One of the most popular methods for minimizing such interferences is to regress out short separation channels from the long separation channels [i.e., superficial signal regression (SSR)]. Although this has been extensively investigated in adults, little is known about the impact of systemic changes on the fNIRS signals recorded in children in either classical or novel naturalistic experiments. We aim to investigate if extracerebral physiological changes occur in toddlers and preschoolers and whether SSR can help minimize these interferences. We collected fNIRS data from 3- to 7-year-olds during a conventional computerized static task and in a dynamic naturalistic task in an immersive virtual reality (VR) cave automatic virtual environment. Our results show that superficial signal contamination data are present in young children as in adults. Importantly, we find that SSR helps in improving the localization of functional brain activity, both in the computerized task and, to a larger extent, in the dynamic VR task. Following these results, we formulate suggestions to advance the field of developmental neuroimaging with fNIRS, particularly in ecological settings.

Developmental changes in how pedestrians cross streets in single- vs. dual-lane traffic conditions.

Pedestrian injury is a leading contributor to childhood deaths. This study compared the crossing behaviors of children with adults when crossing in virtual single-lane vs. two-lane traffic conditions. Using a fully immersive virtual reality system, children 7-10 years and adults crossed streets with traffic in one lane (near lane) or in two lanes (near and far lane) with 0 offset so cars from opposing directions arrived at the child's crossing line at the same time. On each trial, pedestrians made a decision on when to cross and then completed the crossing, with measures of attention and crossing behaviors automatically recorded by the system as they did so. In comparison to crossing a single lane of traffic, crossing two-lane roads increased injury risk for all pedestrians, though children experienced significantly greater risk than adults. Children predominantly crossed by stopping before entering the far lane, whereas adults showed greater synchronization of self-movement to traffic flow and more often crossed both lanes without stopping. Children experience more high-risk outcomes than adults when crossing single-lane roads. Crossing two-lane roads elevates risk for pedestrians of both ages, though this risk is significantly greater for child than adult pedestrians. The predominant strategy used to cross two lanes of traffic shows significant developmental changes. Implications for injury prevention are discussed.

Supplemental Material for Immersive Virtual Reality and Augmented Virtuality in Sport and Performance Psychology: Opportunities, Current Limitations, and Practical Recommendations

Supplemental Material for Immersive Virtual Reality and Augmented Virtuality in Sport and Performance Psychology: Opportunities, Current Limitations, and Practical Recommendations

Design and Development of an Immersive Virtual Reality Serious Game With Biofeedback for Physiological Regulation: Alice, Beyond Reality

The adolescence period is characterized by significant changes in individuals' lives, which can lead to various emotional and behavioural problems. Therefore, it is important for young adults to have tools for self-regulation, understanding, and controlling their physiological symptoms. Integrating these tools as gamified elements into new technologies is a way to engage a younger audience. In recent years, the effectiveness of immersive Virtual Reality has been repeatedly demonstrated in fields such as Psychology and Education. The combination of this technology with biosensors enables individuals to be aware of their real-time physiological states. This physiological monitoring can lead to adaptations in applications based on the individual's emotional state, for example. This work describes the design and development of an immersive Virtual Reality game whose main interaction is through biofeedback. The game is called "Alice, Beyond Reality", and its objective is to help young adults learn to self-regulate their physiological responses. The game draws inspiration from the well-known story of "Alice in Wonderland". In this story, the Queen of Hearts has transformed all the characters into cards, and the players must help them escape before it's too late. To achieve this, the players are guided by the White Rabbit through different levels where interaction through physiology is key. For instance, the players must learn to increase and decrease their heart rate to solve puzzles that allow them to progress to the next level. Throughout the game, gamification elements such as points, progressive difficulty, and various challenges are included to motivate the players to continue advancing in the game. Through the biofeedback system, the players become aware of their physiological changes to control them voluntarily. In the final screen, the players are shown their progression throughout the game so they can recognize their evolution. In the near future, an initial validation with users will be conducted to assess the usability and functionality of the game.

Examining the Role of Augmented Reality and Virtual Reality in Safety Training

This study aims to provide a review of the existing literature regarding the use of extended reality technologies and the metaverse focusing on virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), and mixed reality (MR) in safety training. Based on the outcomes, VR was predominantly used in the context of safety training with immersive VR yielding the best outcomes. In comparison, only recently has AR been introduced in safety training but with positive outcomes. Both AR and VR can be effectively adopted and integrated in safety training and render the learning experiences and environments more realistic, secure, intense, interactive, and personalized, which are crucial aspects to ensure high-quality safety training. Their ability to provide safe virtual learning environments in which individuals can practice and develop their skills and knowledge in real-life simulated working settings that do not involve any risks emerged as one of the main benefits. Their ability to support social and collaborative learning and offer experiential learning significantly contributed to the learning outcomes. Therefore, it was concluded that VR and AR emerged as effective tools that can support and enrich safety training and, in turn, increase occupational health and safety.

ParaVerse: co-design of a parachute rehearsal and training virtual-reality enhanced simulator for the Australian Defence Force: combining a generative co-design framework and an agile approach to development

While co-design methods are crucial for developing digital educational interventions that are user-centred, contextually relevant, inclusive, and effective in meeting the diverse needs of learners and educators, little attention has been paid to the potential value of co-design processes for digital application development in the Defence context. This research gauged the efficacy of combining a generative co-design framework making use of agile and iterative co-design principles in an applied research and development project. The project produced an immersive virtual reality based digital solution in collaboration with the Australian Defence Force Special Operations Command (SOCOMD) Army. Specifically, the ParaVerse project sought to develop a solution considering the advanced Tactics, Techniques and Procedures (TTPs) relevant to special operations soldiers for advanced parachute training. A Defence advisory group consisting of a series of subject matter experts was formulated to consult with the research and development team over the course of the co-design process. End-user testing with 35 SOCOMD personnel demonstrated the value of the ParaVerse application for SOCOMD personnel, speaking to the success of the leveraged generative co-design model. End-users rated ParaVerse as having greater capacity to influence education and training practices for SOCOMD and Defence generally in comparison to a pre-existing virtual parachute simulator. ParaVerse was also rated higher for satisfaction and useability and was associated with fewer instances of motion sickness. The Generative Co-Design Framework leveraged for this research provides one roadmap on how to integrate end-users in innovation design, particularly for projects working across the nexus of Defence and academia.

Does Embodiment in Virtual Reality Boost Learning Transfer? Testing an Immersion-Interactivity Framework

This study investigates the role of embodiment when learning a technical procedure in immersive virtual reality (VR) by introducing a framework based on immersion and interactivity. The goal is to determine how increasing the levels of immersion and interactivity affect learning experiences and outcomes. In a 2 × 2 factorial design, 177 high school students were assigned to one of four experimental conditions, varying levels of immersion (learning in immersive virtual reality wearing a head-mounted display (VR) vs. learning via a computer screen (PC)) and interactivity (directly manipulating objects using controllers/mouse and keyboard (congruent) vs. indirectly manipulating objects with a laser pointer to select a course of action (incidental)). The main outcome measure was a transfer task in which students were required to perform the task they had learned in the virtual environment using concrete objects in real life. Results demonstrated that students in the VR conditions experienced significantly higher levels of presence, agency, location, body ownership, and embodied learning compared to participants in the PC conditions. Additionally, students’ performance during the virtual lesson predicted their real-life transfer test. However, there were no significant effects of immersion or interactivity on any of the transfer measures. The results suggest that high immersion in VR can increase self-reported measures of presence, agency, location, body ownership, and embodied learning among students. However, increased embodiment—manipulated by adding immersion and congruent manipulation of objects did not improve transfer.

How does visual context of urban open spaces drive soundscape pleasantness and eventfulness: a laboratory experiment using a higher order Ambisonics speaker system and immersive virtual reality

Perception of sound environments is influenced by the context we experience them in. A big portion of the contextual information comes from the visual domain, including our understanding of what a place is but also from its visual features. A laboratory study combining questionnaire responses and eye-tracking tools was designed to investigate if the soundscape outcomes and participants' behaviour inside the simulation can be explained by the perceptual outcomes defined by visual information. 360 degree videos and First Order Ambisonics audio recordings of 27 different urban open spaces taken from the International Soundscape Database were used as the stimuli delivered via a Virtual Reality Head-Mounted Display and a Higher Order Ambisonics speaker array, while a neutral grey environment without sounds being reproduced represented the baseline scenario. A questionnaire tool was deployed within the IVR simulation to collect participants' responses describing their perception of the reproduced environments corresponding to the circumplex model featured in the Method A of the ISO/TS 12913-2. The results revealed a good coverage of the two-dimensional perceptual circumplex space and significant differences between perceptual outcomes driven by sound and those driven by visual stimuli.

An experimental setup to investigate relevant validation parameters for the auralization of commercial aircraft flyovers in complex urban contexts

Auralization has a key role in the design of immersive virtual reality tools for the study of human environments and their evolution. In soundscape and multisensory research, the validation of auralization frameworks traditionally relies on the impressions engendered by the virtual acoustic environment on the human subjects, and whether those impressions match real-world experiences. It uses subjective surveys related to the perceptual and affective spheres of individuals. This may lead to unclear validation. In this paper, we present an experimental setup to search for a set of relevant validation parameters for the auralization of complex urban environments involving commercial aircraft flyovers. Our investigation is tailored to the study of working and learning activities in offices or universities neighboring the flight paths. The experimental setup focuses on the quantitative evaluation of cognitive performance instead of the classic perceptual or affective personal survey-based approach. In the experiment, subjects undergo distinct acoustic environments, synthesized from real-world binaural recordings. Simultaneously, subjects perform memory, fluency, or puzzle-like tasks. Different cognitive performance parameters are measured throughout the experiment. The parameters most strongly correlated to the environments' acoustic events and properties are considered meaningful validation parameters.

Clinical Feasibility of Applying Immersive Virtual Reality during Robot-Assisted Gait Training for Individuals with Neurological Diseases: A Pilot Study.

Immersive virtual reality has the potential to motivate and challenge patients who need and want to relearn movements in the process of neurorehabilitation. The aim of this study was to evaluate the feasibility and user acceptance of an innovative immersive virtual reality system (head-mounted display) used in combination with robot-assisted gait training in subjects suffering from neurological diseases. Fifteen participants suffering from cerebrovascular accident or spinal cord injury completed a single session of immersive virtual reality using a head-mounted display during a Lokomat® gait session. Training parameters and safety indicators were collected, and acceptance was investigated among participants and therapists. The results suggest that an immersive virtual reality system is feasible in terms of safety and tolerance. Furthermore, the very positive overall acceptance of the system suggests that it has the potential to be included in a robot-assisted gait training session using Lokomat®. Overall, this study demonstrates that a fully immersive virtual reality system based on a head-mounted display is both feasible and well received by cerebrovascular accident and spinal cord injury patients and their therapists during robot-assisted gait training. This study suggests that such a virtual reality system could be a viable alternative to the screen-based training games currently used in neurorehabilitation. It may be especially suitable for enhancing patient motivation and adherence to training, particularly if the application is enjoyable and not mentally taxing.

Effectiveness of VR Technology in the Design of the Bali Megarupa V Virtual Exhibition

Virtual exhibitions offer a promising avenue for art appreciation in the digital age. However, limited research explores how these online spaces can foster emotional connections with art, a crucial aspect of the art experience. This study investigates the potential of immersive virtual reality (VR) to enhance engagement and emotional impact in virtual art exhibitions. Employing a multi-method approach combining literature review, user testing, and prototype development, the research identifies and evaluates design elements contributing to increased user engagement. This research employed a multi-method approach to understand how users engage with virtual art exhibitions. The study identified and evaluated the impact of specific design elements on user engagement by combining a literature review, user testing with a VR prototype, and subsequent analysis. The study focuses on critical elements like interactivity, personalization, storytelling, and multi-sensory experiences. User testing with 55 participants revealed the effectiveness of immersive design in fostering exploration, contemplation, and a sense of presence in the virtual space. This immersive design is the strategic integration of elements like interactivity, personalization, and storytelling within the VR environment. The research underscores the significance of immersive design, defined as the strategic integration of design elements to cultivate an emotional connection within a VR environment. This encompasses aspects like interactivity, personalization, and the incorporation of storytelling within the experience. Finally, the study offers practical recommendations for curators and designers to create virtual art experiences that resonate more deeply with audiences.

No cardiac phase bias for threat-related distance perception under naturalistic conditions in immersive virtual reality.

Previous studies have found that threatening stimuli are more readily perceived and more intensely experienced when presented during cardiac systole compared with diastole. Also, threatening stimuli are judged as physically closer than neutral ones. In a pre-registered study, we tested these effects and their interaction using a naturalistic (interactive and three-dimensional) experimental design in immersive virtual reality: we briefly displayed threatening and non-threatening animals (four each) at varying distances (1.5-5.5 m) to a group of young, healthy participants (n = 41) while recording their electrocardiograms (ECGs). Participants then pointed to the location where they had seen the animal (approx. 29 000 trials in total). Our pre-registered analyses indicated that perceived distances to both threatening and non-threatening animals did not differ significantly between cardiac phases-with Bayesian analysis supporting the null hypothesis. There was also no evidence for an association between subjective fear and perceived proximity to threatening animals. These results contrast with previous findings that used verbal or declarative distance measures in less naturalistic experimental conditions. Furthermore, our findings suggest that the cardiac phase-related variation in threat processing may not generalize across different paradigms and may be less relevant in naturalistic scenarios than under more abstract experimental conditions.

Understanding Social Interaction and Physiological Patterns in Nonlean and Last Planner System–Based Project Teams: A Comparative Study Using Immersive Virtual Reality

Understanding Social Interaction and Physiological Patterns in Nonlean and Last Planner System–Based Project Teams: A Comparative Study Using Immersive Virtual Reality