English Immersion Research Articles

Cross-Language Transfer of Early Literacy Skills: An Examination of Young Learners in a Two-Way Bilingual Immersion Elementary School

The present study investigates the relationship between first-language literacy skills and the acquisition of second-language reading skills for K–2 grade students enrolled in a Spanish–English two-way bilingual immersion program. Students received literacy instruction in their first language and oral language support in their second language. One hundred seventy-four students were administered subtests of the Woodcock-Johnson (Woodcock-Munoz) in English and Spanish. Findings support the theory of cross-linguistic transfer from the first language to the second language across both constrained and unconstrained literacy skills for both monolingual and bilingual students included in this study. However, findings also suggest interesting differences across language groups.

Cross-Linguistic Transfer Revisited: The Case of English and Persian

The present study sought to investigate the evidence for cross-linguistic transfer in a partial English immersion and non-immersion educational setting. To this end, a total of 145 first, third and fifth graders in a partial English immersion program and 95 students from the same grade levels in a non-immersion program were chosen. Six different English and Persian tests were administered: the Cambridge English for Young Learners (YLE) Test for Reading, a Persian reading achievement test, the English and Persian Phonological Awareness Sound Detection tests and the English and Persian Rapid Automatized Naming Tests. Given the nature of the research question and the design of this study, linear regression analysis was run through Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The findings suggest that there is an apparent cross-linguistic transfer between English reading achievement and Persian cognitive predictors in both educational settings. Relatively speaking, Persian cognitive predictors can moderately predict English reading achievement in Grades 1 and 5 and can weakly predict English reading achievement in Grade 3.

Cognitive abilities underlying second-language vocabulary acquisition in an early second-language immersion education context: A longitudinal study

First-language (L1) and second-language (L2) lexical development has been found to be strongly associated with phonological processing abilities such as phonological short-term memory (STM), phonological awareness, and speech perception. Lexical development also seems to be linked to attentional and executive skills such as auditory attention, flexibility, and response inhibition. The aim of this four-wave longitudinal study was to determine to what extent L2 vocabulary acquired through the particular school context of early L2 immersion education is linked to the same cognitive abilities. A total of 61 French-speaking 5-year-old kindergartners who had just been enrolled in English immersion classes were administered a battery of tasks assessing these three phonological processing abilities and three attentional/executive skills. Their English vocabulary knowledge was measured 1, 2, and 3 school years later. Multiple regression analyses showed that, among the assessed phonological processing abilities, phonological STM and speech perception, but not phonological awareness, appeared to underlie L2 vocabulary acquisition in this context of an early L2 immersion school program, at least during the first steps of acquisition. Similarly, among the assessed attentional/executive skills, auditory attention and flexibility, but not response inhibition, appeared to be involved during the first steps of L2 vocabulary acquisition in such an immersion school context.

Volunteering in a Short-Term English Immersion Program for Spanish-Speaking Adults

This article describes English immersion programs in Spain, where native English speakers volunteer as conversation partners and informal tutors for native Spanish speakers. These Spaniards are at an intermediate skill level in English and wish to improve their oral/aural communication. The most well-known immersion programs, VaughanTown and Pueblo Ingles, are approximately 1 week in duration and take place at resorts in Spain, where only English is spoken for the duration of the program. These programs are run by for-profit companies, which do not release any data on the Spanish participants' immediate or long-term progress as a result of the immersion. It is, therefore, difficult to know if the short-term immersion programs produce long-lasting changes in participants' language and speech perception or production. However, the cultural exchange that takes place among the various cultural groups is extremely rich, and many international friendships are formed on these programs. Anecdotal information shows that Spaniards and English-speaking volunteers report great satisfaction with the programs, and many attend more than once. The author offers suggestions regarding volunteering on these immersion programs and for replicating the programs with the addition of collecting objective evidence.

The Great Wall of “English Only”: Teacher Perceptions of Classroom Ecology in Arizona’s Post-Proposition 203 Era

In 2000, Arizona voters enacted Proposition 203, which limited the use of children’s native language in public schools and instead, mandated an accelerated one-year English immersion model for children with limited English proficiency. This study examines the results of a 20-question survey and follow-up interviews with 117 Arizona K-12 teachers of English Language Learners (ELLs) to determine their views on the effects of the “English–only” model on teaching and learning. The results revealed that restrictive language policies have upset the balance of classroom ecology, resulting in teacher frustration and concern. Teachers’ recommendations to improve ELL education are also discussed.

“It is Hard Fun”: Scaffolded Biography Writing With English Learners

AbstractUsing Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) as a theoretical framework, a team of university staff and educators at a traditionally under‐performing urban elementary school built a collaboration aimed at enhancing writing instruction. The current qualitative research study, which was part of this larger project, focused on biography writing in Eva Rodriguez's third grade sheltered English immersion (SEI) class. To enhance language learning, reading comprehension, and writing skills, the teacher and students deconstructed and jointly constructed biographical text. Students gained a nuanced understanding of the demands of the genre and acquired essential information about persons of study. They were then able to write biographies independently. The purpose of this study was to show how Eva's uniquely scaffolded instruction served as an apprenticeship and influenced English learners’ ability to write in the genre of study.

Teachers and librarians collaborating on inquiry-based science instruction: A longitudinal study

The qualitative, longitudinal study suggests how teachers and librarians learn to collaborate on inquiry-based science lessons that link science, information literacy, and structured English immersion standards for Latino elementary students. Teachers and librarians in the study received extensive professional development training about teacher and librarian collaboration (TLC), information literacy, inquiry-based science, as well as language and culture. In addition, expert peer mentors provided background information to teachers and librarians, as well as modeled high end TLC recommended by school librarian professional guidelines. Although increased interest and high motivation are generated by TLC, findings indicate that considerable time and experience are needed to prepare teachers and librarians to collaborate on instruction. Study results also indicate that there is an apparent lack of experience with inquiry-based science, particularly in schools with a culture of direct instruction. The study highlights teachers' lack of awareness of librarians' role as instructional partners. Greater communication between the professions is urged if TLC is to be successfully implemented as a way to bolster student achievement and stay updated in important fields, such as science, where instruction appears to be lagging behind.

Estimating the Impact of the Massachusetts English Immersion Law on Limited English Proficient Students’ Reading Achievement

The large number of limited English proficient (LEP) children in U.S. schools and the uncertainty about the impact of bilingual education versus English immersion on their achievement warrant rigorous investigation of the effects of “English immersion laws.” We estimated the impact of Question 2, the Massachusetts English immersion law, and explored whether programs provided to LEP students before and after Question 2 imparted different language and reading skills. The results suggested that Question 2 had no substantial effect on third-grade LEP students’ reading achievement; there was suggestive evidence that pre- and post- Question 2 programs might attach emphasis to different subskills.

Cross-language transfer in English immersion programs in Germany: Reading comprehension and reading fluency

Cross-language effects on reading skills are of particular interest in the context of foreign language immersion programs. Although there is an extensive literature on cross-language effects on reading in general, research focusing on immersion students and including different dimensions of reading acquisition such as reading fluency and reading comprehension is scarce. This study therefore investigated cross-language transfer between first-language (L1) and second-language (L2) reading fluency and reading comprehension in a group of 220 German elementary school students who were enrolled in English partial immersion programs. Students were tested in grades 3 and 4. Structural equation modeling was used to examine cross-language transfer in a cross-lagged panel design. Results showed moderate cross-language paths when controlling for autoregressive effects. These findings are in line with previous results showing reciprocal transfer effects between L1 and L2 reading comprehension and reading fluency. In addition, the overall dominance of paths from L2 to L1 over paths from L1 to L2 suggests immersion-specific relations that may be attributable to the plentiful opportunities for academic reading in the L2 at school. Hence, skills necessary for successful reading can evidently be acquired in an L2 context and transferred to the L1. These findings underline the importance of cross-language transfer between reading skills in immersion programs.

Cognitive advantage in children enrolled in a second-language immersion elementary school program for three years

Early bilingualism acquired from home or community is generally considered to positively influence cognitive development. The purpose of the present study was to determine to what extent bilingualism acquired through a second-language immersion education has a similar effect. Participants included a total of 106 French-speaking eight-year-old children drawn from two language groups: 53 children enrolled in English immersion classes since the age of five years (the immersion group) and 53 children enrolled in monolingual French-speaking classes (the monolingual group). The two groups were matched for verbal and nonverbal intelligence and socioeconomic status (SES). They were administered a battery of tasks assessing attentional and executive skills. The immersion group's reaction times were significantly faster than those of the monolingual group on tasks assessing alerting, auditory selective attention, divided attention and mental flexibility, but not interference inhibition. These results show that, after only three years, a second-language immersion school experience also produces some of the cognitive benefits associated with early bilingualism.

The Effects of English Partial Immersion Program on Elementary School Children's English Ability and Affective Factor

The Effects of English Partial Immersion Program on Elementary School Children's English Ability and Affective Factor

A Study of Arizona's Teachers of English Language Learners

Background/Context In September 2007, the Arizona State Board of Education adopted the Structured English Immersion (SEI) model proposed by the Arizona English Language Learner (ELL) Task Force.During the 2008-2009 academic year, it required all school districts to implement the SEI model.The SEI program, best known as the 4-hour English Language Development (ELD) block, was designed to accelerate the learning of the English language, and the goal set forth in Arizona law is for ELLs to become fluent or proficient in English in one year. The SEI model has been implemented in the state of Arizona for two academic years. Unfortunately, little empirical evidence exists regarding the effectiveness of this model, particularly from the perspective of teachers. Purpose/Objective/Research Question/Focus of Study The objective of the present study is to determine teachers’ perceptions of what is working most effectively to provide Arizona's English learners with a quality education. Of particular interest is to better understand: (1) Teachers’ knowledge, opinions, concerns, and understandings about the curriculum and pedagogy for ELL students, (2) How well prepared teachers feel they are to deliver the 4-hour ELD block curriculum, and (3) Teachers’ opinions of how well ELLs are advancing toward meeting the goal of English proficiency and the state educational standards that are set for all of Arizona's students. Population/Participants/Subjects The participants of this study include a sample of 880 teachers currently teaching in 33 schools across the state of Arizona. The sample of schools is representative of the state of Arizona in the distribution of ELL students across grades, but not in terms of students’ demographic characteristics. Furthermore, the sample of teachers in this study is representative of the state of Arizona in terms of gender and level of education, but not in terms of teachers’ ethnicity. Research Design A survey was designed around several areas of interest: (1) descriptive characteristics of teachers, (2) teachers’ perceptions of their current level of preparation for teaching ELL students in the 4-hour ELD block, (3) teachers’ perceptions of effectiveness of the 4-hour ELD block, (4) teachers’ perceptions regarding the academic potential of ELL students, and (5) teachers’ opinions about the implementation of the 4-hour ELD block. Several analytic tools were used to analyze the data collected, including descriptive statistics, t-tests, and Analysis of Variance [ANOVA]. Findings/Results Findings of this study are presented around 6 specific areas of interest: (1) teachers’ perceptions about their current level of preparation for teaching ELL students, (2) teachers’ beliefs about the academic potential of their ELL students (3) teachers’ language beliefs, (4) teachers’ perceptions of the effectiveness of the 4-hour ELD block, (5) teachers’ perceptions about the educational opportunities offered to ELL students, and (6) segregation of ELL students for purposes of instruction and teachers’ opinions about segregation of ELL students and its consequences. Conclusions/Recommendations Based on the findings of this study, we offer the following recommendations. First, Arizona should consider offering alternative modes of instruction that can help ELL students access the course content needed to succeed academically. And second, Arizona should find ways to offer ELL students support from their English proficient peers in acquiring and using language in the classroom, particularly with the complex academic language that leads to successful high school graduation and higher education opportunities.

The Education of English Language Learners in Arizona: A History of Underachievement

Background The state of Arizona has recently mandated the Structured English Immersion Model (SEI) in the state's public schools, and as a result the local flexibility that existed regarding the choice of program models for ELLs has ended. In the school year 2008-09, these regulations were made even more restrictive after the implementation of what is now called the 4-hour ELD block model. Focus of Study This report reviews achievement gaps in both reading and math between ELL and non-ELL students in Arizona over the period 2005-2009 and during the first year of implementation of the 4 hour ELD block, 2008-09. It also compares the progress of Arizona's ELL population towards academic proficiency relative to ELL students in two cities and states that do not place as restrictive legislation on ELL instruction: Utah and Washington, DC, two educational entities with vastly different spending policies. Research Design Achievement was measured using the Reading and Math subtests of the Arizona Instrument to Measure Standards (AIMS), with data from the 2005-2009 administrations. To interpret gaps in performance, differences in AIMS mean scaled scores were analyzed. Two types of comparisons were made: 1) within-grade, across-year, and 2) across-grade, within-year. This allowed a more comprehensive understanding of trends in terms of achievement gaps. The comparison amongst different states was done separately. Data were collected from two sources: Applications for Race to the Top, and incentive program offered as part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009, were used for Utah and Washington, DC. Data from Arizona were gathered using publicly available state report cards released annually by the Arizona Department of Education. Findings The study finds that Arizona has made little to no progress in closing the achievement gap between ELL and non-ELL students during this period. Here, the study argues that, notwithstanding changes in tests and proficiency thresholds in the states over this period of time, the relative position of Arizona vis-à-vis these comparison entities remains very similar, with Arizona continuing to lag behind both in percent of ELL students achieving proficiency in reading and math. Conclusion The study presents recent evidence that suggests that Arizona is on the wrong path for closing achievement gaps for its ELL students and that this is due, at least in part, to its highly restrictive language instruction policies.

Cognitive Predictors of English Reading Achievement in Chinese English-Immersion Students

This study investigated the effects of English and Chinese phonological awareness (PA) and naming speed (NS) on English reading achievement and the evidence for cross-linguistic transfer in Chinese English-immersion students. English PA was a significant predictor of English reading achievement for immersion students in Grades 2 and 4. There was little evidence of cross-linguistic transfer from Chinese PA and NS to English reading achievement. English immersion students performed equal to non-immersion students on NS and mathematics in both grades, and in Chinese PA in Grade 4. Results are discussed in terms of theories of reading development in second language.

Implementing Structured English Immersion in Arizona: Benefits, Challenges, and Opportunities

Background/Context Arizona's most recent English Language Learner (ELL) legislation, starting in the school year 2008-2009, requires all such students be educated through a specific Structured English Immersion (SEI) model: the 4-hour English Language Development (ELD) block. The basic premise behind this particular model is that ELL students should be taught the English language quickly so they can then succeed academically. Purpose/Objective/Research Question/Focus of Study This study is the first attempt to look at a random sample of school districts across the state of Arizona under the 4-hour ELD block policy. The goal of the study is to better understand what are the positive aspects and the major challenges of implementing the 4-hour ELD block in Arizona. In particular this study aims to answer the following research questions: (1) How is the 4-hour ELD block being implemented? (2) What are the perceived benefits of the 4-hour ELD block for students and for schools? and (3) What are the district leaders’ concerns about implementing the 4-hour ELD block? Population/Participants/Subjects Of the 65 school districts randomly selected as potential participants, 26 agreed to participate in this study. The district response rate of the study was 40%, and the informants were the English Language Coordinators (ELC), who are the individuals most knowledgeable about how the 4-hour ELD block is implemented in their district. The sample of school districts that participated in our study is representative of the state of Arizona in terms of enrollment patterns. Research Design The researchers designed a phone survey for ELCs. Qualitative data analyses were used to examine the responses of the 26 ELCs. More specifically, a coding scheme was created to assist in the process of organizing and analyzing the data. Findings/Results Analyses reveal that the vast majority of ELCs think that, as a result of the program, there is an increased focus on English Language Learner (ELL) students’ English language development. Regarding the challenges of the program, ELCs think that the implementation of the 4-hour ELD block has: a) neglected core areas of academic content that are critical for ELL students’ academic success, b) contributed to ELL students’ isolation, c) limited ELL students opportunities for on-time high school graduation, and d) assumed that English language learning can be accomplished within an unrealistic time-frame and under a set of unrealistic conditions. Conclusions/Recommendations Given the data collected, we recommend that school districts explore alternative models of ELD instruction. These alternative models of ELD instruction need to take into consideration the local context of school districts, their resources, and existing research. Furthermore, we recommend that ELL students are offered additional programs or types of support that can help them become English proficient, while acquiring the academic content needed for succeeding in school. It seems reasonable to state that a combination of programs and support can be more effective than one prescriptive instructional approach. Finally, we recommend that school districts monitor progress and effectiveness by looking at multiple indicators. In particular, we strongly suggest that school districts keep track of reclassification, re-entry, and opting-out rates.

Separate and Not Equal: The Implementation of Structured English Immersion in Arizona's Classrooms

Background/Context Over the last ten years, a convergence of laws and decrees has impacted the development and implementation of Arizona's current program for English language learners (ELLs): the four-hour Structured English Immersion (SEI) model. Arizona's new model, while being touted by some as the most effective program for ELLs (Clark, 2009), is raising concerns with researchers and educators involved with the education of ELLs. A recent Auditor General's report (Davenport, 2011) indicates that instructional programs for ELLs have lacked uniformity and that the impact of the SEI model on ELLs’ language development and academic achievement is unknown. Therefore, although it has been over a decade since the Flores Consent Order, we must continue to examine the evidence regarding implementation of the SEI model in order to determine if the instruction offered to ELLs is comparable in amount, scope, and quality to that provided to English-proficient students. Purpose/Objective/Research Question/Focus of Study This paper utilizes the trajectory of these language policies as a lens for examining how ideas stemming from the Flores Consent Order and the English-Only voter initiative (Proposition 203), and continuing through to the legislative response of the court order (House Bill 2064) are evidenced in Arizona's SEI classrooms. Research Design The purpose of this qualitative study is to document and describe the characteristics of the four-hour SEI policy in practice. Over a seven-week period during the spring semester of the 2009/2010 school year, researchers utilized ethnographic observation methods, interviews, and a collection of artifacts to document the implementation of the SEI model and instruction of ELLs. Using a constant comparison analysis, findings were re-examined to show how this restrictive language policy has impacted and shaped the SEI model in practice today. Conclusions/Recommendations Arizona's current four-hour model, as implemented in K-12 SEI classrooms, hinders policy intentions: ELLs do not have access to quality instruction, or a curriculum that is comparable in amount, scope, and quality to that of non-ELLs. Furthermore, deficiencies in funding abound, limiting ELLs’ opportunities for the compensatory education needed to help them catch up academically. The authors contend that a re-examination of the SEI policy is warranted if the state is to fully realize the intentions of the Flores Consent Order and equal educational opportunity for ELLs.

Is Arizona's Approach to Educating Its ELs Superior to Other Forms of Instruction?

BackgroundIn the Horne v Flores Supreme Court decision of June 25, 2009, the Court wrote that one basis for finding Arizona in compliance with federal law regarding the education of its English learners was that the state had adopted a “significantly more effective” than bilingual education instructional model for EL students—Structured English Immersion (SEI).PurposeThis paper reviews the extant research on SEI, its definitions, origins, and its effectiveness, particularly in contrast to other instructional strategies. This paper asks, Does the research bear out the Court's conclusion? What is the evidence that Arizona's program of SEI is really superior to other approaches, including bilingual or dual language education? How are Arizona's EL students faring under this “significantly more effective” instructional program?Research DesignData on the relative effectiveness of SEI are drawn from a comprehensive review of the literature. Analysis of public documents, particularly records from the Arizona English Language Learners Task Force, which was charged with selecting a research-based instructional program for English learners. Drawing from a recent ethnographic study and student achievement data, we examine the impact of structured English immersion programs on English learners in Arizona thus far, beginning with achievement outcomes.Conclusions/RecommendationsThere is no research basis for the Court's statement the SEI is “significantly more effective”; at best SEI is no better or no worse than other instructional strategies, particularly bilingual instruction, when they are both well implemented. However, SEI as implemented in Arizona carries serious negative consequences for EL students stemming from the excessive amount of time dedicated to a sole focus on English instruction, the de-emphasis on grade level academic curriculum, the discrete skills approach it employs, and the segregation of EL students from mainstream peers. Moreover, the paper argues that there are, in fact, strategies that can ameliorate these problems as well as provide an additive, rather than a subtractive, educational experience for English learner and mainstream students alike.

Taking a closer look at Latino parents at one Spanish–English two-way immersion charter school

Scholars who work with Latino/as in the USA have long been calling for a more nuanced understanding of the heterogeneity of the US-based Latino population. Two-way Immersion (TWI) bilingual education programmes are an interesting context in which to examine the Latino parent communities in the USA. Overall, the language enrichment nature of TWI programmes attracts diverse parents from across many different demographic groups, and for a variety of reasons. This study uses an innovative application of cluster analysis to examine the parent population at one TWI Spanish–English elementary school. Survey questions asked were: parents’ income, educational achievement, ethnicity, language spoken at home, religious affiliation, country of origin and residential distance from the school. Our analyses reveal that parents in our sample can be classified into four distinct groups based on the combinations of included characteristics. Our analyses show the emergence of three Latino parent clusters and one Caucasian parent cluster. These analyses show how accounting for the different social dimensions of these parents’ lives simultaneously can provide a more nuanced understanding of the Latino parents at this school.

State Education Policy Formation: The Case of Arizona’s English Language Learner Legislation

This historical case study focuses on policy making at the state level by analyzing the development of a new policy for English language learners (ELLs) in Arizona. New institutionalism is used as a framework, with political culture and educational regimes acting as environmental factors affecting state policy choices. Key events occurred between 1992, when Flores v. State of Arizona challenged the funding of instruction for ELLs, and 2006, when the legislature adopted a law creating an English Language Learners Task Force that was to develop a 4-hour-per-day structured English immersion (SEI) program for ELLs. Analysis indicates that the new policy is consistent with the state’s traditionalistic political culture and emerging neoliberal political regime and with the mythical role of an immigrant’s learning of English as a mark of becoming an American. Policy leaders used and altered the state’s political institutions to advance their objectives. The study concludes with a four-prong test for assessing th...

English immersion and educational inequality in South Korea

This article explores what immersion English education means in South Korea (henceforth Korea) and examines various related educational practices. The proposal for English immersion from the Presidential Transition Committee of the Lee administration in early 2008 has highlighted immersion education in Korea. Ironically, since the committee's withdrawal of the plan, Korea has seen a rise in ‘English immersion’ education in different programme formats. This article proposes a modified typology for immersion education in English as a foreign language context. It surveys various English immersion programmes offered both in private and public venues in Korea and analyses the widely differing practices in English immersion education based on the contextual and structural characteristics of these English immersion programmes. It also examines key research findings regarding immersion education in Korea. Finally, this article demonstrates how immersion education contributes to sustaining and strengthening an ‘English divide’ between children of wealthy parents and those from lower income families.