Imidazole Side Chain Research Articles

Hydrophobic Effect Drives Oxygen Uptake in Myoglobin via Histidine E7

Since the elucidation of the myoglobin (Mb) structure, a histidine residue on the E helix (His-E7) has been proposed to act as a gate with an open or closed conformation controlling access to the active site. Although it is believed that at low pH, the His-E7 gate is in its open conformation, the full relationship between the His-E7 protonation state, its conformation, and ligand migration in Mb is hotly debated. We used molecular dynamics simulations to first address the effect of His-E7 protonation on its conformation. We observed the expected shift from the closed to the open conformation upon protonation, but more importantly, noted a significant difference between the conformations of the two neutral histidine tautomers. We further computed free energy profiles for oxygen migration in each of the possible His-E7 states as well as in two instructive Mb mutants: Ala-E7 and Trp-E7. Our results show that even in the closed conformation, the His-E7 gate does not create a large barrier to oxygen migration and permits oxygen entry with only a small rotation of the imidazole side chain and movement of the E helix. We identify, instead, a hydrophobic site in the E7 channel that can accommodate an apolar diatomic ligand and enhances ligand uptake particularly in the open His-E7 conformation. This rate enhancement is diminished in the closed conformation. Taken together, our results provide a new conceptual framework for the histidine gate hypothesis.

The pH Sensitivity of Murine Heat Shock Protein 47 (HSP47) Binding to Collagen Is Affected by Mutations in the Breach Histidine Cluster

Heat shock protein 47 (HSP47) is a single-substrate molecular chaperone crucial for collagen biosynthesis. Although its function is well established, the molecular mechanisms that govern binding to procollagen peptides and triple helices in the endoplasmic reticulum (followed by controlled release in the Golgi) are unclear. HSP47 binds procollagen at a neutral pH but releases at a pH similar to the pK(a) of the imidazole side chain of histidine residues. It thus seems likely that these residues are involved in this pH-dependent mechanism. Murine HSP47 has 14 histidine residues grouped into three clusters, known as the breach, gate, and shutter. Here, we report the use of histidine mutagenesis to demonstrate the relative contribution of these three clusters to HSP47 structure and the "pH switch." Many of the tested mutants are silent; however, breach mutants H197A and H198A show binding but no apparent pH switch and are unable to control release. Another breach mutant, H191A, shows perturbed collagen release characteristics, consistent with observed perturbations in pH-driven trans-conformational changes. Thus, His-198, His-197 and His-191 are important (if not central) to HSP47 mechanism of binding/release to collagen. This is consistent with the breach cluster residues being well conserved across the HSP47 family.

2-Deuterated Histidine is a Raman Reporter of Histidine's Protonation State, Hydrogen Bonding, and Metal Coordination

The C-2 proton on the imidazole side chain of the amino acid Histidine (His) can be isotopically exchanged for deuterium under mild reaction conditions, thus creating a unique C-D stretching band that can serve as a site-specific reporter of the environment and role of specific His residues in proteins. This band is a very weak infrared band but is clearly visible in nonresonant Raman spectra. His residues can participate in a number of different interactions unique to the His imidazole ring. Model compound work has shown that the peak frequency and spectral properties of this novel C-D vibrational band is dependent on imidazole protonation state, hydrogen bond donor and acceptor strength, and metal coordination, while salt bridge dependence in the model protein T4 lysozyme is currently being studied. Based on protein work that confirms the model compound protonation dependence, larger and more complex protein systems with multiple, distinct His residues, like superoxide dismutase, are currently targeted to report the environment and interactions of multiple specific His residues within the same protein.

Substrate specificity of an oxygen dependent sulfoxide synthase in ovothiol biosynthesis

OvoA is an iron(II) dependent sulfoxide synthase which catalyzes the first step in ovothiol A biosynthesis. This enzyme sulphurizes the C5 position of the imidazole side chain of L-histidine. We report the substrate specificity profile of this catalyst and present data which indicate that OvoA catalysis follows an thiol-ene type mechanism.

Synthetic Analogues of Nickel Superoxide Dismutase: A New Role for Nickel in Biology

Nickel-containing superoxide dismutases (NiSODs) represent a novel approach to the detoxification of superoxide in biology and thus contribute to the biodiversity of mechanisms for the removal of reactive oxygen species (ROS). While Ni ions play critical roles in anaerobic microbial redox (hydrogenases and CO dehydrogenase/acetyl coenzyme A synthase), they have never been associated with oxygen metabolism. Several SODs have been characterized from numerous sources and are classified by their catalytic metal as Cu/ZnSOD, MnSOD, or FeSOD. Whereas aqueous solutions of Cu(II), Mn(II), and Fe(II) ions are capable of catalyzing the dismutation of superoxide, solutions of Ni(II) are not. Nonetheless, NiSOD catalyzes the reaction at the diffusion-controlled limit (~10(9) M(-1) s(-1)). To do this, nature has created a Ni coordination unit with the appropriate Ni(III/II) redox potential (~0.090 V vs Ag/AgCl). This potential is achieved by a unique ligand set comprised of residues from the N-terminus of the protein: Cys2 and Cys6 thiolates, the amino terminus and imidazole side chain of His1, and a peptide N-donor from Cys2. Over the past several years, synthetic modeling efforts by several groups have provided insight into understanding the intrinsic properties of this unusual Ni coordination site. Such analogues have revealed information regarding the (i) electrochemical properties that support Ni-based redox, (ii) oxidative protection and/or stability of the coordinated CysS ligands, (iii) probable H(+) sources for H(2)O(2) formation, and (iv) nature of the Ni coordination geometry throughout catalysis. This review includes the results and implications of such biomimetic work as it pertains to the structure and function of NiSOD.

Formation of RNA Phosphodiester Bond by Histidine‐Containing Dipeptides

A new scenario for prebiotic formation of nucleic acid oligomers is presented. Peptide catalysis is applied to achieve condensation of activated RNA monomers into short RNA chains. As catalysts, L-dipeptides containing a histidine residue, primarily Ser-His, were used. Reactions were carried out in self-organised environment, a water-ice eutectic phase, with low concentrations of reactants. Incubation periods up to 30 days resulted in the formation of short oligomers of RNA. During the oligomerisation, an active intermediate (dipeptide-mononucleotide) is produced, which is the reactive species. Details of the mechanism and kinetics, which were elucidated with a set of control experiments, further establish that the imidazole side chain of a histidine at the carboxyl end of the dipeptide plays a crucial role in the catalysis. These results suggest that this oligomerisation catalysis occurs by a transamination mechanism. Because peptides are much more likely products of spontaneous condensation than nucleotide chains, their potential as catalysts for the formation of RNA is interesting from the origin-of-life perspective. Finally, the formation of the dipeptide-mononucleotide intermediate and its significance for catalysis might also be viewed as the tell-tale signs of a new example of organocatalysis.

Thermochemistry of Alkali Metal Cation Interactions with Histidine: Influence of the Side Chain

The interactions of alkali metal cations (M(+) = Na(+), K(+), Rb(+), Cs(+)) with the amino acid histidine (His) are examined in detail. Experimentally, bond energies are determined using threshold collision-induced dissociation of the M(+)(His) complexes with xenon in a guided ion beam tandem mass spectrometer. Analyses of the energy dependent cross sections provide 0 K bond energies of 2.31 ± 0.11, 1.70 ± 0.08, 1.42 ± 0.06, and 1.22 ± 0.06 eV for complexes of His with Na(+), K(+), Rb(+), and Cs(+), respectively. All bond dissociation energy (BDE) determinations include consideration of unimolecular decay rates, internal energy of reactant ions, and multiple ion-neutral collisions. These experimental results are compared to values obtained from quantum chemical calculations conducted previously at the MP2(full)/6-311+G(2d,2p), B3LYP/6-311+G(2d,2p), and B3P86/6-311+G(2d,2p) levels with geometries and zero point energies calculated at the B3LYP/6-311+G(d,p) level where Rb and Cs use the Hay-Wadt effective core potential and basis set augmented with additional polarization functions (HW*). Additional calculations using the def2-TZVPPD basis set with B3LYP geometries were conducted here at all three levels of theory. Either basis set yields similar results for Na(+)(His) and K(+)(His), which are in reasonable agreement with the experimental BDEs. For Rb(+)(His) and Cs(+)(His), the HW* basis set and ECP underestimate the experimental BDEs, whereas the def2-TZVPPD basis set yields results in good agreement. The effect of the imidazole side chain on the BDEs is examined by comparing the present results with previous thermochemistry for other amino acids. Both polarizability and the local dipole moment of the side chain are influential in the energetics.

Selective control of Cu(II) complex stability in histidine peptides by β-alanine

The cooperativity of formation of 5-membered and 6-membered chelate rings is the driving force for specificity and selectivity in Cu(II) peptidic complexes. α-Amino acids enable the formation of 5-membered rings, while a 6-membered ring is provided by the coordination of the His side chain imidazole. Introduction of β-alanine is another way of creating a 6-membered ring in the Cu(II) complex. The potentiometric and spectroscopic (UV–vis and CD) study of Cu(II) complexation by a series of four peptides, AAH-am, ABH-am, BAH-am, and BBH-am (where B stands for β-alanine, and -am for C-terminal amide) revealed a very strong effect of the sizes of individual rings, with the order of complex stability AAH-am (5,5,6)>BAH-am (6,5,6)>ABH-am (5,6,6)≫BBH-am (6,6,6). The stabilities of ABH-am and BAH-am complexes are intermediate between those of strong His-3 peptides but these complexes are still able to saturate the coordination sphere of the Cu(II) ion at neutral pH. This fact opens up new possibilities in engineering specific peptide-based chelates.

Structure and Function of Non-Native Metal Clusters in Human Arginase I

Various binuclear metal ion clusters and complexes have been reconstituted in crystalline human arginase I by removing the Mn(2+)(2) cluster of the wild-type enzyme with metal chelators and subsequently soaking the crystalline apoenzyme in buffer solutions containing NiCl(2) or ZnCl(2). X-ray crystal structures of these metal ion variants are correlated with catalytic activity measurements that reveal differences resulting from metal ion substitution. Additionally, treatment of crystalline Mn(2+)(2)-human arginase I with Zn(2+) reveals for the first time the structural basis for inhibition by Zn(2+), which forms a carboxylate-histidine-Zn(2+) triad with H141 and E277. The imidazole side chain of H141 is known to be hyper-reactive, and its chemical modification or mutagenesis is known to similarly compromise catalysis. The reactive substrate analogue 2(S)-amino-6-boronohexanoic acid (ABH) binds as a tetrahedral boronate anion to Mn(2+)(2), Co(2+)(2), Ni(2+)(2), and Zn(2+)(2) clusters in human arginase I, and it can be stabilized by a third inhibitory Zn(2+) ion coordinated by H141. Because ABH binds as an analogue of the tetrahedral intermediate and its flanking transition states in catalysis, this implies that the various metallo-substituted enzymes are capable of some level of catalysis with an actual substrate. Accordingly, we establish the following trend for turnover number (k(cat)) and catalytic efficiency (k(cat)/K(M)): Mn(2+) > Ni(2+) ≈ Co(2+) ≫ Zn(2+). Therefore, Mn(2+) is required for optimal catalysis by human arginase I.

Mode Recognition in UV Resonance Raman Spectra of Imidazole: Histidine Monitoring in Proteins

The imidazole side-chains of histidine residues perform key roles in proteins, and spectroscopic markers are of great interest. The imidazole Raman spectrum is subject to resonance enhancement at UV wavelengths, and a number of UVRR markers of structure have been investigated. We report a systematic experimental and computational study of imidazole UVRR spectra, which elucidates the band pattern, and the effects of protonation and deprotonation, of H/D exchange, of metal complexation, and of addition of a methyl substituent, modeling histidine itself. A consistent assignment scheme is proposed, which permits tracking of the bands through these chemical variations. The intensities are dominated by normal mode contributions from stretching of the strongest ring bonds, C(2)N and C(4)C(5), consistent with enhancement via resonance with a dominant imidazole π-π* transition.

The crystal structure of human α1-microglobulin reveals a potential haem-binding site

We describe the 2.3 Å (1 Å=0.1nm) X-ray structure of α1m (α1-microglobulin), an abundant protein in human blood plasma, which reveals the β-barrel fold typical for lipocalins with a deep pocket lined by four loops at its open rim. Loop #1 harbours the residue Cys34 which is responsible for covalent cross-linking with plasma IgA. A single disulfide bond between Cys72 and Cys169 connects the C-terminal segment to the β-barrel, as in many other lipocalins. The exposed imidazole side chains of His122 and His123 in loop #4 give rise to a double Ni2+-binding site together with a crystallographic neighbour. The closest structural relatives of α1m are the complement protein component C8γ, the L-prostaglandin D synthase and lipocalin 15, three other structurally characterized members of the lipocalin family in humans that have only distant sequence similarity. In contrast with these, α1m is initially expressed as a bifunctional fusion protein with the protease inhibitor bikunin. Neither the electron density nor ESI-MS (electrospray ionization MS) provide evidence for a chromophore bound to the recombinant α1m, also known as 'yellow/brown lipocalin'. However, the three side chains of Lys92, Lys118 and Lys130 that were reported to be involved in covalent chromophore binding appear to be freely accessible to ligands accommodated in the hydrophobic pocket. A structural feature similar to the well-known Cys-Pro haem-binding motif indicates the presence of a haem-binding site within the loop region of α1m, which explains previous biochemical findings and supports a physiological role in haem scavenging, as well as redox-mediated detoxification.

Ionic Conduction and Dielectric Response of Poly(imidazolium acrylate) Ionomers

We use X-ray scattering to investigate morphology and dielectric spectroscopy to study ionic conduction and dielectric response of imidazolium-based single-ion conductors with two different counterions [hexafluorophosphate (PF6–) or bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (F3CSO2NSO2CF3– = Tf2N–)] with different imidazolium pendant structures, particularly tail length (n-butyl vs n-dodecyl). A physical model of electrode polarization is used to separate ionic conductivity of the ionomers into number density of conducting ions and their mobility. Tf2N– counterions display higher ionic conductivity and mobility than PF6– counterions, as anticipated by ab initio calculations. Ion mobility is coupled to polymer segmental motion, as these are observed to share the same Vogel temperature. Ionomers with the n-butyl tail impart much larger static dielectric constant than those with the n-dodecyl tail. From the analysis of the static dielectric constant using Onsager theory, there is more ionic aggregation in ionomers with the n-dodecyl tails than in those with the n-butyl tails, consistent with X-ray scattering, which shows a much stronger ionic aggregate peak for the ionomers with dodecyl tails on their imidazolium side chains.

Copper(II) interaction with peptide fragments of histidine–proline-rich glycoprotein: Speciation, stability and binding details

GHHPH is the peptide repeat present in histidine–proline rich glycoprotein (HPRG), a plasma glycoprotein involved in angiogenesis process. The copper(II) ions interaction with mono (Ac-GHHPHG-NH2) and its bis-repeat (Ac-GHHPHGHHPHG-NH2) was investigated by means of potentiometric and spectroscopic techniques. To single out the copper(II) coordination environments of different species formed with Ac-GHHPHG-NH2, three single point mutated peptides were also synthesized and their ability to coordinate Cu2+ investigated. Ac-GHHPHG-NH2 binds Cu2+ by the imidazole side chain and the amide nitrogen deprotonation that takes place towards the N-terminus. The bis-repeat is able to bind Cu2+ more efficiently than Ac-GHHPHG-NH2. This difference is not only due to the number of His residues in the sequence but also to the different binding sites. In fact, the comparison of the potentiometric and spectroscopic data of the copper(II) complexes with a bis-repeatPeg construct Ac-(GHHPHG)-Peg-(GHHPHG)-NH2 and those of the metal complexes with Ac-HGHH-NH2, indicates that the central HGHH amino acid sequence is the main copper(II) binding site.

Chemical Rescue of Active Site Mutants of S. pneumoniae Surface Endonuclease EndA and Other Nucleases of the HNH Family by Imidazole

The His-Asn-His (HNH) motif characterizes the active sites of a large number of different nucleases such as homing endonucleases, restriction endonucleases, structure-specific nucleases and, in particular, nonspecific nucleases. Several biochemical studies have revealed an essential catalytic function for the first amino acid of this motif in HNH nucleases. This histidine residue was identified as the general base that activates a water molecule for a nucleophilic attack on the sugar phosphate backbone of nucleic acids. Replacement of histidine by an amino acid such as glycine or alanine, which lack the catalytically active imidazole side chain, leads to decreases of several orders of magnitude in the nucleolytic activities of members of this nuclease family. We were able, however, to restore the activity of HNH nuclease variants (i.e., EndA (Streptococcus pneumoniae), SmaNuc (Serratia marcescens) and NucA (Anabaena sp.)) that had been inactivated by His→Gly or His→Ala substitution by adding excess imidazole to the inactive enzymes in vitro. Imidazole clearly replaces the missing histidine side chain and thereby restores nucleolytic activity. Significantly, this chemical rescue could also be observed in vivo (Escherichia coli). The in vivo assay might be a promising starting point for the development of a high-throughput screening system for functional EndA inhibitors because, unlike the wild-type enzyme, the H160G and H160A variants of EndA can easily be produced in E. coli. A simple viability assay would allow inhibitors of EndA to be identified because these would counteract the toxicities of the chemically rescued EndA variants. Such inhibitors could be used to block the nucleolytic activity of EndA, which as a surface-exposed enzyme in its natural host destroys the DNA scaffolds of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) and thereby allows S. pneumoniae to escape the innate immune response.

Coordination of Ni 2 + and Cu 2 + to metal ion binding domains of E. coli SlyD protein

The C-terminal region of Escherichia coli SlyD is unstructured and extremely rich in potential metal-binding amino acids, especially in histidine residues. SlyD is able to bind two to seven nickel ions per molecule, in a variety of coordination geometries and coordination numbers. This protein contributes to the insertion of nickel into the hydrogenase precursor protein and it has a peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans-isomerase activity which can be regulated through nickel ions. This inspired us to undertake systematic studies on the coordination ability of two histidine-rich peptides from the C-terminus of the SlyD protein with nickel. Also, it is known that histidine-rich regions are part of a Cu 2 + binding domain involved in copper uptake under conditions of metal starvation in vivo in other bacteria. For this reason we decided to examine the complex formation of Ac-AHGHVHGAHDHHHD-NH 2 and Ac-GHGHDHGHEHG-NH 2 fragments with copper ions, which are also reference metal ions in this study. Experiments were performed in a DMSO/water 30:70 solvent. The Ac-AHGHVHGAHDHHHD-NH 2 and Ac-GHGHDHGHEHG-NH 2 fragments were synthesized and their interactions with Ni 2 + and Cu 2 + ions were studied by potentiometric, mass spectrometric, UV–vis, CD, EPR, and NMR spectroscopic techniques in solution. The results show that the Ac-GHGHDHGHEHG-NH 2 fragment forms equimolar complexes with both nickel and copper ions. At physiological pH, the metal ion is bound only through nitrogens from imidazole sidechain of histidine residues. On the contrary, Ac-AHGHVHGAHDHHHD-NH 2 binds 2 metal ions per molecule, at pH range 5 to 7, even if the 1:2 metal:peptide ratios were used. NMR studies indicate the involvement of all His residues in this pH-range in metal binding of the latter peptide. At higher pH, the stoichiometry changes to 1:1 and the His residues are displaced by amide nitrogens.

A Copper–Methionine Interaction Controls the pH-Dependent Activation of Peptidylglycine Monooxygenase

The pH dependence of native peptidylglycine monooxygenase (PHM) and its M314H variant has been studied in detail. For wild-type (WT) PHM, the intensity of the Cu-S interaction visible in the Cu(I) extended X-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) data is inversely proportional to catalytic activity over the pH range of 3-8. A previous model based on more limited data was interpreted in terms of two protein conformations involving an inactive Met-on form and an active flexible Met-off form [Bauman, A. T., et al. (2006) Biochemistry 45, 11140-11150] that derived its catalytic activity from the ability to couple into vibrational modes critical for proton tunneling. The new studies comparing the WT and M314H variant have led to the evolution of this model, in which the Met-on form has been found to be derived from coordination of an additional Met residue, rather than a more rigid conformer of M314 as previously proposed. The catalytic activity of the mutant decreased by 96% because of effects on both k(cat) and K(M), but it displayed the same activity-pH profile with a maximum around pH 6. At pH 8, the reduced Cu(I) form gave spectra that could be simulated by replacement of the Cu(M) Cu-S(Met) interaction with a Cu-N/O interaction, but the data did not unambiguously assign the ligand to the imidazole side chain of H314. At pH 3.5, the EXAFS still showed the presence of a strong Cu-S interaction, establishing that the Met-on form observed at low pH in WT cannot be due to a strengthening of the Cu(M)-methionine interaction but must arise from a different Cu-S interaction. Therefore, lowering the pH causes a conformational change at one of the Cu centers that brings a new S donor residue into a favorable orientation for coordination to copper and generates an inactive form. Cys coordination is unlikely because all Cys residues in PHM are engaged in disulfide cross-links. Sequence comparison with the PHM homologues tyramine β-monooxygenase and dopamine β-monooxygenase suggests that M109 (adjacent to H site ligands H107 and H108) is the most likely candidate. A model is presented in which H108 is protonated with a pK(a) of 4.6 to generate the inactive low-pH form with Cu(H) coordinated by M109, H107, and H172.

The Structural Basis for Substrate Recognition by Mammalian Polynucleotide Kinase 3′ Phosphatase

Mammalian polynucleotide kinase 3' phosphatase (PNK) plays a key role in the repair of DNA damage, functioning as part of both the nonhomologous end-joining (NHEJ) and base excision repair (BER) pathways. Through its two catalytic activities, PNK ensures that DNA termini are compatible with extension and ligation by either removing 3'-phosphates from, or by phosphorylating 5'-hydroxyl groups on, the ribose sugar of the DNA backbone. We have now determined crystal structures of murine PNK with DNA molecules bound to both of its active sites. The structure of ssDNA engaged with the 3'-phosphatase domain suggests a mechanism of substrate interaction that assists DNA end seeking. The structure of dsDNA bound to the 5'-kinase domain reveals a mechanism of DNA bending that facilitates recognition of DNA ends in the context of single-strand and double-strand breaks and suggests a close functional cooperation in substrate recognition between the kinase and phosphatase active sites.

A Central Interdomain Protein Joint in Elongation Factor G Regulates Antibiotic Sensitivity, GTP Hydrolysis, and Ribosome Translocation

The antibiotic fusidic acid potently inhibits bacterial translation (and cellular growth) by lodging between domains I and III of elongation factor G (EF-G) and preventing release of EF-G from the ribosome. We examined the functions of key amino acid residues near the active site of EF-G that interact with fusidic acid and regulate hydrolysis of GTP. Alanine mutants of these residues spontaneously hydrolyzed GTP in solution, bypassing the normal activating role of the ribosome. A conserved phenylalanine in the switch II element of EF-G was important for suppressing GTP hydrolysis in solution and critical for catalyzing translocation of the ribosome along mRNA. These experimental results reveal the multipurpose roles of an interdomain joint in the heart of an essential translation factor that can both promote and inhibit bacterial translation.

Effect of Intracellular pH on the Mechano Activated Potassium Channel from Human Erythrocyte

We have presented direct evidences of the existence of a Mechano-Activated K+ Channel in Human Erythrocytes (HEMKCA)(1). This channel presents a sigmoid dependence of Po on applied pressure and a conductance of 17pS in symmetrical 120mM KCl, 12mM NaCl, 1.8mM CaCl2, 10mM Tris, pH 7.3. We have proposed that this channel plays a fundamental roll in the senescent process of this cell, as the molecular mechanism behind to its biological clock (The K+ hypothesis). Because of the interplay of O2 and CO2 at microcirculation level it is expected a change in free H+ activity, and it is been already presented a difference in internal pH (pHi) between younger (pHi=7) and older cells (pHi=7.3)(2). Here, using the Patch-Clamp technique we have studied the effect of intracellular pH, ranging from 7.3 to 6.5, on the activity of HEMKCA. This decrease of pHi result in a dramatic decrease of Po, been equal to 0 at pHi lowers than 6.5. The open probability presents a sigmoid dependence on pH and can be described as a titration curve in concordance with the protonation of one or more independent sites, presenting a pK of 6.6, this suggests the involvement of the side-chain imidazole group of Histidine. The fact that there was no change in the channel conductance suggests that the titrated site(s) is not close to the mouth, the vestibule or the pore of the channel. In conclusion, we present a dramatic dependence of Po with pHi, so in younger cells the channel activity is naturally depressed compared with older cells in concordance with the K+ hypothesis presented by us.(1) Romero, J.G. and Romero, P.J.(2005)Biophysical J. 88(1): 266a(2) Romero, P.J. and Romero E. (2004) Act Cient Venez. 55(1):83,5

Diamide amino-imidazoles: A novel series of γ-secretase inhibitors for the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease

The synthesis and structure-activity relationship (SAR) of a novel series of di-substituted imidazoles, derived from modification of DAPT, are described. Subsequent optimization led to identification of a highly potent series of inhibitors that contain a β-amine in the imidazole side-chain resulting in a robust in vivo reduction of plasma and brain Aβ in guinea pigs. The therapeutic index between Aβ reductions and changes in B-cell populations were studied for compound 10 h.