Imagery Test Research Articles

No sex differences in the TAMI.

The Test of Ability in Movement Imagery (TAMI; Madan and Singhal in J Mot Behav 45:153-166, 2013) has recently been developed as an objective measure for evaluating individual ability in movement imagery. Other tests of imagery have reported sex differences, including the mental rotations test (MRT) and the Vividness of Movement Imagery Questionnaire (VMIQ). However, some have attributed these observed sex differences to other processes, such as difference in spatial abilities and confidence. Here, we tested for sex differences in the TAMI in a large sample of young adults (N = 246). In the same sample, we also administered a modified version of the MRT that included both block configurations and human figures and the VMIQ2. This modified MRT was used, as the imagery processes involved in the TAMI may be more similar to those involved in the rotations of human figures. While strong sex differences were found in both subscales of the modified MRT, no sex differences were observed in the TAMI.

LSD enhances suggestibility in healthy volunteers.

Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) has a history of use as a psychotherapeutic aid in the treatment of mood disorders and addiction, and it was also explored as an enhancer of mind control. The present study sought to test the effect of LSD on suggestibility in a modern research study. Ten healthy volunteers were administered with intravenous (i.v.) LSD (40-80 μg) in a within-subject placebo-controlled design. Suggestibility and cued mental imagery were assessed using the Creative Imagination Scale (CIS) and a mental imagery test (MIT). CIS and MIT items were split into two versions (A and B), balanced for 'efficacy' (i.e. A ≈ B) and counterbalanced across conditions (i.e. 50 % completed version 'A' under LSD). The MIT and CIS were issued 110 and 140 min, respectively, post-infusion, corresponding with the peak drug effects. Volunteers gave significantly higher ratings for the CIS (p = 0.018), but not the MIT (p = 0.11), after LSD than placebo. The magnitude of suggestibility enhancement under LSD was positively correlated with trait conscientiousness measured at baseline (p = 0.0005). These results imply that the influence of suggestion is enhanced by LSD. Enhanced suggestibility under LSD may have implications for its use as an adjunct to psychotherapy, where suggestibility plays a major role. That cued imagery was unaffected by LSD implies that suggestions must be of a sufficient duration and level of detail to be enhanced by the drug. The results also imply that individuals with high trait conscientiousness are especially sensitive to the suggestibility-enhancing effects of LSD.

A Research Note on Mental Imagery in the Blind in Terms of Reassessment at a 9-Year Interval

A longitudinal study was undertaken to assess the development of several types of imagery in an adult who has been blind for 12 years. Various imagery tests were carried out to measure: visual, auditory, tactile, kinaesthetic, gustatory, olfactory, and organic imagery; movement imagery; and control imagery. Image vividness related to vision was found to decline over time whereas image vividness related to other senses increased or remained stable. Further research is proposed.

Internal–External Motor Imagery and Skilled Motor Actions

Abstract The purpose of this study was to analyze the movement-related brain macropotentials (MRBMs) recorded during the execution of two tests of motor imagery: kinaesthetic (internal) and visual (external). Recordings were compared with those obtained performing a GO/NOGO motor test. The GO test required pressure of three keys of a modified keyboard in sequence when a figure appeared in the computer screen. On NOGO trials no button had to be pressed. Motor imagery tests were an internal or kinaesthetic imagination test (IN MI) on which participants imagined performing the pressure of keyboard buttons, avoiding any real movement, and an external or visual imagination test (EX MI) on which subjects were asked to imagine seeing their finger press the buttons. With the completion of the Movement Imagery Questionnaire, the participants were assigned into two groups: high (11) and low (10) capacity of imagination. The results showed an increase in the amplitude of the MRBMs wave occurring in the prestimulus period of imagination, with respect to real motor action. In the poststimulus period, the amplitude and duration of the waves recorded during motor action were higher than those recorded during the motor imagery tests. The comparison between EX and IN MI showed a lower latency and a higher amplitude of the brain waves recorded during internal motor imagery with respect to those observed during EX MI. The experimental data confirm that real motor activity is related to higher amplitude MRBMs than motor imagery. The profile of the waves recorded during internal imagery seems to be related to a higher brain involvement compared to those recorded during external visual imagery; it suggest that the kinaesthetic process of imagination is more efficient in information processing and motor skill acquisition.

Task requirements and their effects on imagined walking in elderly

Mental training has the potential to enhance motor performance and behavior in older adults. Yet several studies have revealed age-related alteration of motor imagery (MI) ability, suggesting that mental training is not applicable for older adults. The purpose of the present study was to estimate MI performance in older adults, taking into account task requirements. MI performance of 20 older (mean age 70.75 ± 3.68 years) and 22 younger (mean age 24.31 ± 1.25 years) adults was estimated with the mental chronometry paradigm from the first-person perspective. Participants completed four walking tasks with different requirements, walking (A) in a straight line; (B) with two changes of direction; (C) on uneven ground; and (D) while additionally flipping switches. Path length and width were constant across tasks. MI ability was also measured with the Controllability of Motor Imagery Test, in which body parts have to be controlled and manipulated mentally. In addition, participants reported self-rated clarity of their MI in both tests after each trial. Our data suggest no generalized alteration in MI of walking with different task requirements among older adults. A significant Age × Condition × Task interaction emerged, but this result could not be attributed to a specific task requirement in post-hoc tests. For controllability of MI, older adults showed alterations in imagining body postures. These results showed dissociation with the self-rated clarity in both tests. The present findings suggest that older adults show no age-related alterations in MI for familiar movements. Mental Training of familiar movements could therefore be feasible for older adults and enables promising intervention strategies.

Relationship between Japanese Listening Span Test and vividness of visual imagery

Relationship between Japanese Listening Span Test and vividness of visual imagery

Mu-rhythm changes during the planning of motor and motor imagery actions

Motor imagery is a mental representation of motor behavior which has been widely used to study the cognitive basis of movement. The assumption that real movements and motor imagery (virtual movements) use the same neurobiological basis has been questioned by functional magnetic resonance data. The functional similarity in the planning of real and virtual movements was studied here by analyzing event-related EEG recordings of the Mu-activity in the sensitive-motor cortex, pre-motor cortex and supplementary motor cortex. A visual stimulus (an arrow) which displayed the information needed for planning a motion (which can be executed or imaged later after the display of a second stimulus) induced a short-lasting phase-locked Mu-response (PLr) which was wider and more widespread when it was used for the motor planning of real or virtual movements than when it was passively watched. The phase-locked Mu-response was accompanied by a persistent decrease of the Mu-rhythms which were not phase-locked to stimuli (NPLr), a response which also was more marked and generalized when stimuli were used for motor planning than when they were passively observed. PLr and NPLr were similar during motor testing and imagery testing, suggesting that both tasks activated the Mu rhythms to a similar degree. This congruency between real and virtual movements was observed in the three cortical areas studied, where the amplitude, latency and duration of the phase-locked and non-phase-locked Mu response was similar in both cases. These noticeable similarities support the idea that the same cortical mechanisms are recruited during the planning of real and virtual movements, a fact that can be analyzed better when an event-related paradigm and a high time-resolution method are used.

Age-Related Differences in Motor Imagery: Working Memory as a Mediator

Background/Study Context: Although motor imagery is a well-established phenomenon in healthy younger adults, it seems necessary to determine if older adults are still able to accurately perform imagery tasks before investigating the application of motor imagery in rehabilitation. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine if there is a progressive decline in motor imagery performance with age. Furthermore, we wanted to verify whether the effects of age on motor imagery were due to (or mediated by) deficits of working memory. Methods: This study examined the key characteristics of the motor imagery ability in three groups of healthy older men and women (60–69, 70–79, and ≥80 years; mean age M = 73.8, SD = 8.3) and 40 younger subjects aged 20 to 30 years (M = 28.87, SD = 2.5). Imagery ability was measured using the Movement Imagery Questionnaire (MIQ), the Controllability of Motor Imagery (CMI) test, and two different chronometry tests. To estimate the mediational effect of working memory on age differences in the imagery measures, we employed latent variable structural equation modeling (SEM). Results: The main findings indicated that motor imagery ability (generation, visual and kinesthetic imagery ability, controllability, and temporal organization) were better in young adults compared with older adults 70 years and older, but not in older adults 60 to 69 years of age. The analysis of the mediational effect of working memory on age differences in the motor imagery measures showed that the inclusion of working memory increased the amount of explained variance in the MIQ (ΔR 2 = .03), in the CMI test (ΔR 2 = .15), as well as in the mental chronometry tests (ΔR 2 = .16) Conclusion: Our findings suggest that there is potential for motor imagery to be compromised in the older age ranges, which may limit motor imagery as a rehabilitative strategy in older and in cognitively impaired individuals.

Weevil seed damage reduces germination and seedling growth of hybrid American chestnut

Seed predation by weevils (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) has been implicated as a limiting factor in oak recruitment throughout eastern US forests. We examined the effects of weevil seed predation on American chestnut (Castanea dentata (Marsh.) Borkh.). Although an introduced pathogen eradicated sexually reproducing populations of American chestnut in the early 1900s, the recent development of a blight-resistant hybrid makes reintroduction feasible. We nondestructively assessed the amount of weevil damage to seeds using X-ray imagery and traditional float test methods in American and blight-resistant hybrid chestnut. We quantified the effects of weevil damage on seed germination and seedling growth. The float test method misidentified damage for up to 50% of seeds, whereas the X-ray method misidentified only 3% of the sample. Germination declined with damage: the smallest damage level reduced germination from 94% to 32%. No seeds with >50% damage germinated. Weevil damage reduced seedling growth by 50% compared with undamaged seeds. Seedling size increased with seed size, but seed size had no effect on germination. Our results highlight the importance of orchard and seed processing practices that prevent weevil damage to chestnut seeds. Because they drastically reduce germination rates and seedling growth, weevils have the potential to limit seed regeneration and dampen rates of spread in populations following reintroduction.

Motor Imagery Ability in Patients With Traumatic Brain Injury

Oostra KM, Vereecke A, Jones K, Vanderstraeten G, Vingerhoets G. Motor imagery ability in patients with traumatic brain injury. ObjectiveTo assess motor imagery (MI) ability in patients with moderate to severe traumatic brain injury (TBI). DesignProspective, cohort study. SettingUniversity hospital rehabilitation unit. ParticipantsPatients with traumatic brain injury (mean coma duration, 18d) undergoing rehabilitation (n=20) and healthy controls (n=17) matched for age and education level. InterventionsNot applicable. Main Outcome MeasuresThe vividness of MI was assessed using a revised version of the Movement Imagery Questionnaire—Revised second version (MIQ-RS); the temporal features were assessed using the time-dependent motor imagery (TDMI) screening test, the temporal congruence test, and a walking trajectory imagery test; and the accuracy of MI was assessed using a mental rotation test. ResultsThe MIQ-RS revealed a decrease of MI vividness in the TBI group. An increasing number of stepping movements was observed with increasing time periods in both groups during the TDMI screening test. The TBI group performed a significantly smaller number of imagery movements in the same movement time. The temporal congruence test revealed a significant correlation between imagery and actual stepping time in both groups. The walking trajectory test revealed an increase of the imagery and actual walking time with increasing path length in both groups, but the ratio of imaginary walking over actual walking time was significantly greater than 1 in the TBI group. Results of the hand mental rotation test indicated significant effects of rotation angles on imagery movement times in both groups, but rotation time was significantly slower in the TBI group. ConclusionsOur patients with TBI demonstrated a relatively preserved MI ability indicating that MI could be used to aid rehabilitation and subsequent functional recovery.

Development of a Japanese Version of the Object-Spatial Imagery Questionnaire (J-OSIQ)

The Object-Spatial Imagery Questionnaire (OSIQ) is a measure of individual differences in visual imagery preferences. In the present study, we attempted to develop a Japanese version of the OSIQ (J-OSIQ). On the basis of principal components analysis, we obtained two factors in the questionnaire. An object imagery scale (15 items) assesses preferences for representing colorful, pictorial, high-resolution images of individual objects or scenes. A spatial imagery scale (15 items) assesses preferences for representing schematic images of objects and spatial locations of objects. The reliabilities of these factors were similar to those of the original version. Additionally, we showed that the object imagery scale was selectively correlated with object imagery measures, whereas the spatial imagery scale was selectively correlated with spatial imagery tests. These results demonstrate that the J-OSIQ is useful for measuring preferences for object and spatial imagery in Japanese.

Visual memory and visual mental imagery recruit common control and sensory regions of the brain

Separate lines of research have shown that visual memory and visual mental imagery are mediated by frontal-parietal control regions and can rely on occipital-temporal sensory regions of the brain. We used fMRI to assess the degree to which visual memory and visual mental imagery rely on the same neural substrates. During the familiarization/study phase, participants studied drawings of objects. During the test phase, words corresponding to old and new objects were presented. In the memory test, participants responded “remember,” “know,” or “new.” In the imagery test, participants responded “high vividness,” “moderate vividness,” or “low vividness.” Visual memory (old-remember) and visual imagery (old-high vividness) were commonly associated with activity in frontal-parietal control regions and occipital-temporal sensory regions. In addition, visual memory produced greater activity than visual imagery in parietal and occipital-temporal regions. The present results suggest that visual memory and visual imagery rely on highly similar––but not identical––cognitive processes.

Environment and object mental images in patients with representational neglect: Two case reports

The aim of this study was to shed light on the nature of the imagery deficits in two patients with representational neglect and to determine whether representational neglect is affected by the content of the mental images the patients have to generate, inspect and manipulate. In particular, we submitted two patients with different types of representational neglect to a battery of visual mental imagery tests to assess the different kinds of imagery processes. We found that Patient 1, whose performance was asymmetrical on the O'Clock Test, performed poorly on tasks involving the mental generation, inspection and manipulation of objects but showed no deficit on tasks involving the mental generation, inspection and manipulation of environments. On the other hand, Patient 2, whose performance was asymmetrical on the Familiar Squares Description Test, performed poorly on tasks involving the mental generation, inspection and manipulation of environments, but not on tasks involving the mental generation, inspection and manipulation of objects. Our results demonstrate that environments and objects in the imagery domain can be represented separately and can be selectively affected by damage following brain lesions.

Long-Term Adaptation to Neck/Shoulder Pain and Perceptual Performance in a Hand Laterality Motor Imagery Test

The effect of neck/shoulder pain on the performance in a hand laterality motor imagery test was studied. Responses to the Cooper and Shepard (1975, Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 104 48-56) hand laterality test were explored in twenty-four individuals with chronic non-specific neck pain and twenty-one subjects with chronic neck pain of traumatic origin (whiplash-associated disorder). Twenty-two controls were also included in the study. Digitalised right- or left-hand stimuli were presented at five different stimulus angles (0 degrees, 45 degrees laterally, 90 degrees laterally, 135 degrees laterally, and 180 degrees). The experimental task was to decide the laterality as fast and accurately as possible. The performance, both reaction time (RT) and accuracy, of the two experimental groups was contrasted with that of the control group. The main results revealed that the subjects afflicted with whiplash injury on the average exhibited a faster response pattern than symptom-free healthy controls. Despite their musculoskeletal deficits and experience of pain these volunteers also exhibited a preserved speed-accuracy tradeoff. Longer duration of time with symptoms of neck pain was, moreover, associated with progressively faster RTs. These results point to perceptual learning and may reflect different stages of adaptation to neck pain.

Graphesthesia: A test of graphemic movement representations or tactile imagery?

Patients with corticobasal degeneration (CBG) often demonstrate agraphesthesia in the same hand they demonstrate apraxia. To recognize letters written in their hand subjects can develop a spatial representation and access graphemic representations. Alternatively, people can use movement working memory and match movement patterns to stored letter movement representations. To learn the method normally used without vision, normal subjects (12) had letters written on their palm either in the normal manner or in a reverse direction. If letters written on the hand are recognized by their spatial features (as when visually reading) direction should not influence letter recognition, but if letters written on the hand are recognized by movement patterns, then in the reverse condition recognition should be impaired. When letters were written normally there were no differences in error between the tactile and visual modality. When letters were written in reverse, however, normal subjects made more errors in the tactile than visual condition. Normally, people identify letters written on their hand by covertly copying (mirroring) the examiner and then access letter movement representations. This might explain why patients with CBG often have agraphesthesia associated with apraxia.

Loss of imagery phenomenology with intact visuo-spatial task performance: A case of ‘blind imagination’

The capacity for imagery, enabling us to visualise absent items and events, is a ubiquitous feature of our experience. This paper describes the case of a patient, MX, who abruptly lost the ability to generate visual images. He rated himself as experiencing almost no imagery on standard questionnaires, yet performed normally on standard tests of perception, visual imagery and visual memory. These unexpected findings were explored using functional MRI scanning (fMRI). Activation patterns while viewing famous faces were not significantly different between MX and controls, including expected activity in the fusiform gyrus. However, during attempted imagery, activation in MX's brain was significantly reduced in a network of posterior regions while activity in frontal regions was increased compared to controls. These findings are interpreted as suggesting that MX adopted a different cognitive strategy from controls when performing the imagery task. Evidence from experimental tasks thought to rely on mental imagery, such as the Brooks' matrices and mental rotation, support this interpretation. Taken together, these results indicate that successful performance in visual imagery and visual memory tasks can be dissociated from the phenomenal experience of visual imagery.

Mental imagery vividness as a trait marker across the schizophrenia spectrum

We investigated the vividness of mental imagery and its possible relationship with the predisposition towards hallucinations in 52 schizophrenia (SZ) patients, 44 of their first-degree relatives (R) and two healthy control groups (high-schizotypy [CHS; n = 24]; low-schizotypy [CLS; n = 24]). We investigated phenomenological and cognitive trait markers of schizophrenia, including cognitive correlates of hallucinations and vividness of mental imagery, and the influence of individual psychopathology. Overall, scores on the mental imagery questionnaire (QMI [Sheehan, P.W., 1967. Reliability of a short test of imagery. Perceptual and Motor Skills 25, 744.]) suggested higher mental imagery vividness in first-degree relatives, high-schizotypy controls and patients, than in low-schizotypy controls. However, vividness of mental imagery was independent of predisposition towards hallucinations and cognitive test performance scores. These results suggest that vividness of mental imagery may be a trait marker across the schizophrenia spectrum. In addition we propose that imagery proneness is relatively independent of the individual psychopathology.

Fixation sequences in imagery and in recognition during the processing of pictures of real-world scenes

Thirty photographs of real-world scenes were presented for encoding, and half the participants then performed a recognition test, deciding whether each of 60 images were old (from the original set) or new. The other participants performed an imagery task immediately after encoding each of the 30 images. After completing this task, the recognition group then performed the imagery task in response to prompts that were unique verbal descriptors, and the imagery group performed the recognition task. All participants returned 2 days later, and repeated the imagery test. Eye movements were recorded during all phases. Differences in average fixation duration, average number of fixations and average saccadic amplitude were found between task groups and between experimental phases. Scan patterns were compared with a string-editing algorithm. Close similarities were observed between experimental phases that involved more similar tasks (e.g., initial encoding vs. recognition, and immediate imagery vs. delayed imagery). Scan patterns were equally similar when the task was presented immediately or after 2 days. We propose that the more similar the encoding and retrieval processes are, the more similar eye movements will be at each of these experimental stages.

The Man Who Could Not Cry and the Psychoanalyst Who Could: Mutual Healing in the Maternal Transference/Countertransference

This is a clinical/theoretical study of mutual healing in the maternal transference/countertransference. Therapist and patient began their work when each was in extreme mourning. I detail sensory, affective transactions between them that proved transformative. I deem these basic to the healing that was unusually rapid. It broke through the patient's dissociation, and the therapist's sorrow. I note that the treatment modalities were similar to those essential to mother/infant bonding. I connect the treatment's transformative effects with those discovered through infant research and studies with the functioning magnetic resonance imagery test (fMRI). All three of these modes of interpersonal study-psychotherapy, infant, and fMRI research-exhibit mind/body imprinting of the mother/infant deeply connected experience.

Mental imagery skills and topographical orientation in humans: A correlation study

Several studies provide evidence that mental imagery is critical for human navigation. However, the contribution of different mental imagery abilities to the individuals’ skill of using specific orientation strategies remains unclear. In the present study we assessed a variety of mental imagery skills and investigated their contribution in relationship with the selective individuals’ ability of forming and using a mental representation of the environment, namely a cognitive map. Indeed, despite the use of alternative strategies that individuals may adopt while moving along the same well-known route, cognitive maps are critical for orientation since they allow individuals to reach any target location from any place in the environment. We found that the ability to form a cognitive map was related to the specific ability of performing mental rotations of simple geometrical shapes, and the ability to imaging ourselves moving on a map. Other imagery skills such as the ability to generate mental images from memory or the ability of mentally manipulate objects were not correlated with the individuals’ performance in forming the cognitive map. Moreover, we revealed gender differences in forming a cognitive map, as well as in performing some of the mental imagery tests. We discuss these findings in order to shed more light on the specific role of mental imagery in human topographical orientation.