Illegal Drugs Research Articles

In-Hospital Drug Use Affects a Broad Patient Population and the Health Care System

IntroductionPatients who suffer from addiction sometimes take illicit substances while in the hospital (in-hospital drug use [IHDU]), which can lead to unnecessary work-up and preventable treatments when symptoms develop. The purpose of this study was to define the frequency and scope of this problem, who it affects, and its impact on the medical system. MethodsWe reviewed all incident reports from our large, urban level 1 trauma center that involved a patient being found with illicit substances in the hospital between January 2020 and January 2023. Reports were included if patients were witnessed taking the illicit substance or if they admitted to taking one in the hospital. Individual medical charts were then reviewed to determine the details of the incident and the response of the medical team. ResultsThirty-one incidents meeting the inclusion criteria were found. Of the patients involved, 74.2% were male and ranged in age from 21 to 82 years old. The admitting services included internal or family medicine (48.4%), trauma (32.3%), surgical intensive care unit (ICU) (6.5%), medical ICU (6.5%), obstetrics and gynecology (3.2%), and plastic surgery (3.2%). Interventions ranged from no intervention to transfer to the ICU and intubation. 29.0% had visitors immediately prior to the incident, which may be how the substances were obtained. 16.1% left against medical advice after having their drugs confiscated. ConclusionsOur findings suggest that a broad range of patients are at risk for IHDU, and that IHDU can lead to medical complications, additional medical expense, or patients at risk of incomplete care due to leaving against medical advice. Future work is necessary to understand patient outcomes and financial implications of IHDU, as well as to develop tools to identify those patients most at risk.

Immigrants, legal status, and illegal trade

Nearly $2 trillion of illegally trafficked goods flow across international borders every year, generating violence and other social costs along the way. Due to the absence of legal contracts and the challenge of finding trading partners in an illegal market, traffickers may rely on co-ethnic networks to facilitate trade. In this paper, I use novel microdata on the universe of large illegal drug confiscations in Spain to provide the first causal estimates of how immigrants and immigration policy affect the pattern and scale of illegal drug trafficking. I find that immigrants increase both illegal drugs imported from and exported to their origin country, with irregular immigrants raising illegal drug imports. Doubling the number of immigrants from an origin country raises the likelihood of illegal drug imports from that country by 8 percentage points. I find suggestive evidence that granting legal status to immigrants reduces illegal drug imports.

Cannabis use, mental health and suicide attempts among adolescents in Puerto Rico

Abstract Cannabis is the most widely used illicit substance worldwide, with recent reports estimating an 11.6% annual prevalence of use in North America. Mental health, suicidal ideation, suicide attempts and completed suicides, has been the focus of several studies exploring its association with frequent cannabis use. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the association between cannabis use, mental health symptoms and suicide attempts among adolescent students in Puerto Rico. Consulta Juvenil X is a monitoring program that aims to study the prevalence of substance use, mental health and violent behavior as well as the risk factors associated with those practices. The survey was conducted during the 2018-20 academic year. The study utilizes a self-administered questionnaire. The sample included 4,668 (54%) females and 3,977 (46%) males. Half of the sample was between seventh and ninth grade with a median age of 15 years old. The majority of the sample was recruited from the public school system in Puerto Rico (70.3%). The prevalence of marihuana use in the public and private schools participating in the study was 9.4% and the suicide attempts was 7.6%. Multiple logistic regression analyses revealed that students who use marihuana during the last year were significantly more likely to report depressive and anxiety symptoms after controlling for sociodemographic variables. Moreover, adolescents who use marihuana were significantly more likely to report suicide attempts after controlling for depression symptoms (OR = 3.07; 95%CI: 2.53-3.72). Findings of this study suggest that adolescents who report marihuana use seem to be at higher risk for mental health problems and suicide attempts. Understanding who is most likely to report marihuana use is important in developing interventions to prevent mental health problems and suicidal behaviors. Key messages • Findings of this study suggest that adolescents who report marihuana use seem to be at higher risk for mental health problems and suicide attempts. • Understanding who is most likely to report marihuana use is important in developing interventions to prevent mental health problems and suicidal behaviors.

A Novel High-Throughput Immunoaffinity LC-MS/MS Assay for P-III-NP and Other Fragments of Type III Procollagen in Human Serum.

The amino-terminal propeptide of type III procollagen (P-III-NP) is used with IGF-I to detect the illicit use of growth hormone and to monitor growth hormone therapy. However, the only currently available assays for P-III-NP are immunoassays, which are not well harmonized. In addition, other fragments of type III procollagen may better evaluate collagen turnover. We aimed to develop a high-throughput assay using immunoaffinity enrichment coupled to ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) to quantify peptides belonging to three different regions of type III procollagen in human serum simultaneously. To facilitate higher throughput, we transferred the assay from microcentrifuge tubes to a 96-well plate format with partially automated pipetting. The method was linear (Pearson's R ≥ 0.994) over an estimated concentration range of 1.35-13.3 nM, 0.04-2.28 nM, and 0.26-5.1 nM for each surrogate peptide of P-III-NP, collagen degradation products, and the carboxyl-terminal propeptide, respectively. Intra-day and inter-day imprecision were both < 13.6%, and the results of robustness testing were also encouraging. The method was successfully applied to capillary blood samples obtained using Tasso+ microsampling devices. Modest correlation of P-III-NP concentration was observed between our new method and a WADA-approved immunoassay (N = 40, Pearson's R = 0.789) with a significant bias of -87.8%. Our method simultaneously quantifies four peptides belonging to three regions of type III procollagen in human serum. High bias between assays highlights the need for common higher-order calibrators or reference materials to help improve the comparability of results across laboratories.

Methamphetamine-induced cardiotoxicity: in search of protective transcriptional mechanisms.

Crystalline methamphetamine hydrochloride is an illegal drug with ahigh addictive potential, better known by its colloquial name "ice" or "crystal meth". The abuse of this drug has led to significant health problems worldwide. Like other amphetamine-type stimulants, chronic consumption of methamphetamine leads to direct toxic effects on the central nervous system, causing cognitive impairment, depressive behavior, and other severe neurological or psychiatric symptoms. Besides its neurotoxicity, the drug exhibits numerous deleterious effects on the cardiovascular system, including hypertension, accelerated atherosclerosis, vasospasm-induced acute coronary syndromes, sudden cardiac death, and dilated cardiomyopathy with congestive heart failure and left ventricular dysfunction. The excessive release of catecholamines upon methamphetamine exposure causes vasoconstriction and vasospasm, which ultimately lead to hypertension, tachycardia, endothelial dysfunction, and cardiotoxicity. While numerous studies have focused on transcription factors expressed in the brain that cause the neurotoxic effects of the drug, much less is known about transcription factors involved in the development of methamphetamine-induced heart failure. In this article, we provide an overview of the Janus kinase-signal transducer and activator of transcription3 (JAK-STAT3) pathway involved in ischemia/reperfusion injury in the myocardium, which may be activated by the vasospasm-inducing action of the drug. However, much more work is needed to decipher the precise role of STAT protein family members, including the potentially cardioprotective STAT3, in the pathogenesis of methamphetamine-induced cardiotoxicity.

Exploring Human Misuse and Abuse of Veterinary Drugs: A Descriptive Pharmacovigilance Analysis Utilising the Food and Drug Administration’s Adverse Events Reporting System (FAERS)

Introduction: Evidence suggests an increasing misuse of veterinary medicines by humans. This study aims to analyse Adverse Events (AEs) associated with selected veterinary products using the Food and Drug Administration Adverse Events Reporting System (FAERS). Methods: A descriptive pharmacovigilance analysis was conducted on AEs related to 21 drugs approved for human and/or animal use. Results: A total of 38,756 AEs, including 9566 fatalities, were identified. The United States reported the highest number of cases (13,532), followed by Canada (2869) and the United Kingdom (1400). Among the eight drugs licenced exclusively for animals, levamisole, pentobarbital, and xylazine were most frequently reported. Reports predominantly involved males (57%) from the 18–64 age group, with incidents related mainly to overdose, dependence, and multi-agent toxicities. Unmasking techniques revealed ‘intentional overdose’ as the primary reaction. Polysubstance use was evident in 90% of the drugs, with benzodiazepines/Z-drugs and opioids as common co-used classes. Conclusions: Veterinary medications are increasingly infiltrating the illicit drug market due to their pharmacological properties. This trend highlights the need for heightened vigilance and awareness to prevent further public health risks associated with the adulteration of illicit substances with veterinary products like xylazine and pentobarbital.

The effects of cannabinoids on the kidney.

Cannabinoids are a class of drugs derived from the Cannabis plant that are widely used for the treatment of various medical conditions and recreational use. Common examples include Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol (CBD), spice, and 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG). With more than 100 cannabinoids identified, their influence on the nervous system, role in pain management, and effects due to illicit use have been extensively studied. However, their effects on peripheral organs, such as the kidneys, require further examination. With dramatic rises in use, production, and legalization, it is essential to understand the impact and mechanistic properties of these drugs as they pertain to renal and cardiovascular physiology. The goal of this review is to summarize prior literature on the expression of cannabinoid receptors and how cannabinoids influence renal function. This review first discusses the interaction of the endocannabinoid system (ECS) and renal physiology and pathophysiology. Following, we briefly discuss the role of the ECS in various kidney diseases and the potential therapeutic applications of drugs targeting the cannabinoid system. Lastly, recent studies have identified several detrimental effects of cannabinoids, not only on the kidney but also in contributing to adverse cardiovascular outcomes. Thus, the negative impact of cannabinoids on renal function and the development of various cardiovascular diseases is also discussed.

Standing between the elite and street fields: Young people from affluent communities dealing with drugs

Sociology has a rich tradition studying ‘elite’ and ‘street’ social spaces, but rarely considers spaces between these fields and the social actors within them. This article fills that gap by examining the life stories of affluent Oslo youth engaged in illegal drug dealing. Participants had access to economic, social, and cultural capital in both elite and street social space. Making money in legitimate and illegitimate ways kept participants relatively marginal in both spaces. Having social networks among street-oriented peers and among elites facilitated drug dealing but also allowed them an exit from drug crimes when needed. They were educated and often employed, but also had high levels of drug and street cultural competence. This left them relatively estranged from their affluent background milieu leading to persistence in drug dealing. I argue that illegal drug markets among the affluent can be viewed as an in-between social space, that ‘elite’ or ‘street’ youth are likely best conceptualized as existing on a sociocultural spectrum between fields and provide a Bourdieusian framework to study social actors who stand between fields and the impact this may have on their lives.

Law enforcement officer perceptions of the Good Samaritan law and their role in the opioid epidemic in the United States

PurposeGood Samaritan laws were enacted to reduce overdose deaths by lowering the barriers to reporting for victims and witnesses and allowing law enforcement officers to carry and administer Narcan to those suspected of an opioid-related overdose The purpose of this study is to understand how officers perceive the impact of opioid overdose reduction initiatives in the United States and their role in the opioid epidemic.Design/methodology/approachMixed methods were used in two phases to examine perceptions among law enforcement officers in a Massachusetts police department. First, qualitative methods were used to interview nine patrol officers during participant observations in the form of ride-alongs. Second, patrol officers and officers who volunteer with the department opioid outreach program were surveyed.FindingsOfficers generally held mixed feelings about the state’s Good Samaritan law. They saw the importance of saving the lives of those experiencing an overdose and keeping other first responders safe, but also in enforcing laws against possession of illegal drugs that presents a public safety threat, including the accidental exposure to fentanyl. Despite mixed feelings, officers still believed it to be important that they are trained and able to administer Narcan since they are often the first to arrive on scene.Originality/valueThis study adds to the research on officers’ perceptions of their role in the opioid epidemic, their ability to administer Narcan and the impact of Good Samaritan laws on their community.

Fluorescence‐Based Detector Design Principles for Low Vapor Pressure Analytes

AbstractFluorescence‐based sensing is a promising method for detecting trace quantities (vapors) of chemical threats. However, direct detection at standard temperature and pressure of chemicals with low volatilities, such as the salts of illegal drugs, is difficult to achieve. Herein, the development of a testing platform designed to maximize the response from fluorescent material detection of low volatility analytes, using the salts of illicit drugs as exemplars, is described. The challenges encountered in detecting low‐volatility analytes are highlighted, and the hardware solutions employed to overcome them are detailed. The testing platform is composed of a swab heating unit, a sensing chamber, and optical components that enable detection of illicit drugs via a fluorescence quenching mechanism. The swab heating unit facilitates volatilization of the analytes, with the shape of the sensing chamber and its fabrication material optimized to maximize the interaction of the analyte with the sensing element, increasing sensitivity. The detection platform is able to detect trace amounts (down to 30 ng) of (±)‐3,4‐methylenedioxyamphetamine hydrochloride (MDA•HCl), along with other common illicit drug salts such as cocaine hydrochloride (cocaine•HCl), fentanyl•HCl, and methamphetamine•HCl (MA•HCl).

Experiences of residents in a therapeutic community model of substance use disorder treatment in a mental hospital in Ghana

BackgroundIn Ghana, the use of illegal drugs and alcohol has been classified as endemic. To manage this menace, the Therapeutic Community model for Substance Use Disorders (SUD) was introduced in Ghana about a decade ago as an alternative to other existing strategies. However, the effectiveness of this treatment modality for substance use disorders in Pantang Mental Hospital and Accra Psychiatric Hospital has not been scientifically studied.ObjectiveThis study, therefore, sought to explore the experiences of substance users or residents enrolled in the Therapeutic Community programme toward recovery from substance use disorders.MethodThis research employed an explorative-descriptive design. Participants (N = 20) were enrolled purposively sampled and recruited into the study. Face-to-face interviews were conducted using a semi-structured guide and data were analyzed using Colaizzi’s descriptive phenomenology data analysis process.ResultsTwo main themes emerged from the data: “Why I stayed” (Motivation), and “All things are new” (Life transformation). The study pointed out that residents or participants mainly expressed positive experiences in the programme, including experiencing a sense of belongingness, enhanced self-esteem/self-worth, and most importantly, developing hope of a life free of addiction.ConclusionIn conclusion, the study found that participants in the Therapeutic Community (TC) program generally had positive experiences and believed in its effectiveness for recovery. Factors such as a relaxed environment, supportive staff, and interactions with other residents contributed to their positive experience. The study discovered that motivation, a conducive environment for care, structured program activities, and relationships among residents were key factors that motivated participants to stay and actively participate in the therapeutic community program. These factors fostered hope and a sense of belonging, ultimately contributing to their recovery journey. However, participants expressed the need for self-actualization, which they hoped to achieve after completing the program and reintegrating into the community.

Club Drugs and Psychiatric Outcomes: A Descriptive Case Series from Spain

Background: illegal drugs significantly contribute to global health issues, with health complications often occurring not only in regular users with Substance Use Disorders (SUDs) but also in first-time and occasional users. Methods: this study examines five clinical cases from a public hospital in Ibiza, Spain, where patients presented with acute psychiatric symptoms due to recreational drug use. Results: Contrary to previous studies on SUDs, our patients typically had higher education levels and stable employment. Most of them used multiple substances, with cannabis, cocaine, and alcohol being the most frequently used. There was also a common occurrence of consuming drugs with uncertain contents. Upon admission, typical symptoms included aggression, hallucinations, mood swings, and disorientation in time and space. Conclusions: Our findings underscore the significant mental health risks posed by illicit drugs, even for individuals with no prior psychiatric history. Factors like the drug’s potency, frequency and amount of use, past mental health issues, personality traits, and previous traumatic experiences might influence the onset of these symptoms.

To study impact of drug abuse in adolescence

Adolescent drug usage can lead to a variety of outcomes that are different from those associated with adult drug use. Alcohol is a common illicit substance in youth, and the molecular mechanisms behind alcohol-induced neuro inflammation, brain injury, and behavioural dysfunction caused by ethanol are not fully understood. In the adult brain, alcoholism is associated with a higher chance of neuropsychiatric diseases. Adolescent alcohol use can cause long-lasting modifications to the control of cytokines and the sensitivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which can impact neuropathology and behaviour long into adulthood... Synthetic androgens used for muscle and strength gain, especially in adolescence, are called alcoholic androgenic steroids (AAS). Adult neuropathology and alcoholism can be prevented and treated using AAS, an anabolic steroid.

Incidence and Outcomes of Pregnant Trauma Patients With Positive Urine Toxicology: A Southern California Multicenter Study.

Background: The use of illicit substances during pregnancy has increased 4-fold in the past two decades, negatively impacting both mother and fetus. The rate and clinical outcomes of substance use in pregnant trauma patients (PTPs) are not well studied. We sought to evaluate clinical outcomes of PTPs with positive urine toxicology, hypothesizing a higher rate of in-hospital maternal complications for PTPs with a positive urine toxicology ((+)Utox) compared to those testing negative ((-)Utox). Methods: PTPs (≥18years old) were included in this multicenter retrospective study between 2016 and 2021. We included patients with known urine toxicology results and compared (+)Utox vs (-)Utox PTPs. Results: From 852 PTPs, 84 (9.8%) had a (+)Utox with the most common illicit substance being THC (57%) followed by methamphetamine (44%). (+)Utox PTPs had higher rates of blunt head injury (9.5% vs 4.2%, P = .028), extremity injury (14.3% vs 6.5%, P = .009), domestic violence (21.4% vs 5.9%, P < .001), suicide attempt (3.6% vs 0.3%, P < .001), and uterine contractions (46% vs 23.5%, P < .001). Abnormal fetal heart tracing, premature rupture of membranes and placental injury were similar between groups (all P > .05). The rate of maternal complications was similar in both groups (all P > .05). Conclusion: In this study, the rate of (+)Utox in PTPs was 9.8%. The (+)Utox group had similar rates of maternal complications but more commonly experienced uterine contractions which may be related to the physiology of drugs such as methamphetamines. PTPs with (+)Utox also more commonly were victims of domestic violence and suicide attempt, which merits further prevention research efforts.

A Microbial Cocaine Bioreporter

The continuous emergence of new illegal compounds, particularly psychoactive chemicals, poses significant challenges for current drug detection methods. Developing new protocols and kits for each new drug requires substantial time, effort, and dedicated manpower. Whole-cell bacterial bioreporters have been proven capable of detecting diverse hazardous compounds in both laboratory and field settings, identifying not only single compounds but also chemical families. We present the development of a microbial bioreporter for the detection of cocaine, the nervous system stimulant that is the second-most widely used illegal drug in the US. Escherichia coli was transformed with a plasmid containing a bacterial luxCDABEG bioluminescence gene cassette, activated by a cocaine-responsive signaling cascade. The engineered bioreporter is demonstrated to be a sensitive and specific first-generation detection system for cocaine, with detection thresholds of 17 ± 8 μg/L and 130 ± 50 μg/L in a buffer solution and in urine, respectively. Further improvement of the sensor’s performance was achieved by altering the nucleotide sequence of the PBen gene promoter, the construct’s sensing element, using accelerated site-directed evolution. The applicability of ready-to-use paper strips with immobilized bioreporter cells was demonstrated for cocaine detection in aqueous solutions.

A five-year retrospective review of fatalities involving novel psychoactive substances in Southern Ireland

Introduction: Novel psychoactive substances (NPS) are rapidly emerging and being reformulated to evade legislative controls, creating unpredictability in drug markets and ineffective drug policies. Given that Ireland has the highest self-reported NPS use within Europe and literature regarding health risks is lacking, the National Advisory Committee on Drugs has advocated for the surveillance of regional trends. Objectives: To elucidate the demographic and autopsy findings of fatal cases involving NPS in Southern Ireland as compared to deaths involving traditional drugs of abuse (TDOA). Methods: Post-mortem reports from the Cork-Kerry region with positive toxicology for illicit substances between 2012-2016 were retrospectively analyzed to compare NPS and TDOA cases with respect to circumstances surrounding death, toxicological results, and pathological findings. Results: Between 2012-2016, there were 164 cases involving illicit substances in the Cork-Kerry region. NPS accounted for 17 (10.4%) cases, with an average annual mortality rate of 34.8 per 100,000 population. NPS contributed to the cause of death in 70.6% of cases where detected, compared to 43.5% for TDOA only. In both cohorts, fatal abusers were predominantly young males. Importantly, cases involving NPS showed a higher proportion of mono-drug intoxication and presentation to hospital prior to death. Autopsy findings were non-specific but commonly featured pulmonary congestion, aspiration, and cerebral oedema. Conclusion: NPS are detected in a small proportion of medicolegal autopsies but contribute significantly to acute intoxication deaths. This study highlights the need for effective drug monitoring and enforcement strategies, along with improved management of drug toxicities presenting to hospital.

Exploring the impact of opioids on serum chemistry: Insights from FT-Raman spectroscopy and biochemical analysis

Opioids are drugs whose use has increased dramatically over the last two decades. Opioids are a family of drugs that includes the illegal drug heroin, synthetic opioids such as fentanyl, and painkillers that are legally available on prescription. Unfortunately, too long use of these drugs can lead to addiction, which might cause disturbed physiological and mental effects. Regular opioid usage might cause common mental disorders such as depression, anxiety, and panic disorder. However, there is still no rapid detection method to describe the chemical changes caused by the Opioid use disorder. For this reason, this study used conventional FT-Raman spectroscopic techniques with multivariate analysis to detect chemical changes in serum following opiate administration. In the FT-Raman spectrum collected from opioid-addicted patients, significant shifts of peaks at 892 cm−1, 966 cm−1, 1286 cm−1, 1459 cm−1 and 2940 cm−1 were visible in comparison with the spectrum of serum collected from the control group. Furthermore, changes in the ratio of amides and lipids were observed in the non-control group, suggesting that opioids could cause structural changes in the compounds. Synchronous spectra show auto peaks at 2914 cm−1, 3415 cm−1 while asynchronous negative cross area between 1005 cm−1 and 1800 cm−1 and around 3000 cm−1 indicate higher presence of polysaccharides and amides in comparison with other compounds in serum collected from non-control group. Finally, the PCA model, utilizing three components that explain 94.89 % of the data variation within the 300–3700 cm⁻¹ range, demonstrates excellent performance. The ensemble classification method achieves accuracies of 97.96 % and 95.00 % on the training and test datasets, respectively. Furthermore, the method achieves AUC-ROC scores of 1.00 and 0.99 for the training and test sets, effectively distinguishing between control and opioid-addicted individuals.

Clinical implications of opioid parent-metabolite ratios

BackgroundThe opioid epidemic has underscored the importance of urine drug testing in the management of chronic pain. However, interpreting test results can be challenging, especially in scenarios where medications may have been directly added to urine samples to simulate compliance. MethodsWe conducted a retrospective analysis of 9,690 opioid testing results using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The study aimed to define the expected ratios between parent drugs and metabolites for eight commonly prescribed opioids. Cases with a parent-metabolite ratio above the 95th percentile were subjected to chart review. ResultsA total of 13 cases appeared likely consistent with simulated compliance with buprenorphine, 2 with methadone, 14 with oxycodone, and one with hydrocodone. The unusual patterns of parent-metabolite ratio can also be associated with hyperacute drug exposures/use, pharmaceutical impurity, or underlying liver enzyme deficiency. Furthermore, patients who failed the decision limits could exhibit other illicit use or aberrant behaviors. ConclusionLaboratories conducting LC-MS/MS-based opioid testing can more objectively identify anomalies by analyzing parent-metabolite ratios. When in consultation with providers, laboratories can point to these data when suggesting the possibility of simulated compliance and help identify cases warranting further investigation.

A psilocybin haven: the use of comparison to legitimate transgression at a psychedelic retreat

Background Currently, there are great hopes for psychedelic substances in treating psychiatric conditions and improving well-being. These substances are illegal in many countries, and we lack knowledge of how conflicting discourses shape psychedelic use in naturalistic settings. This study explores how psilocybin use is made meaningful by participants and staff at a retreat including psychedelic ceremonies aimed at personal growth. Methods Ethnographic fieldwork was conducted at a psychedelic retreat with participants from Sweden. The material was organized using Zinberg’s model of drug, set, and setting. Theoretical work related to comparisons was utilized to elucidate how psilocybin use was distinguished from other illicit drug use. Results The participants’ desires to be fundamentally transformed, combined with the staff’s staging of the setting as a haven primed the participants to approach psilocybin as an inherently benevolent substance. Positive experiences during the ceremonies were attributed to the substance, and negative experiences to personal shortcomings. Conclusions The staff and participants combined different discourses to define the meaning of psilocybin, all of which condemned using it for purely recreational purposes. The psilocybin use at the retreat was considered an improvement and wholly unrelated to illegal drug use, dissociating this practice from such use to establish legitimate transgression.

Inkjet Printing Patterned Plasmonic SERS Platform with Surface-Optimized Paper for Label-Free Detection of Illegal Drugs in Urine.

Rapid quantitative testing of illegal drugs is urgently needed for precisely cracking down on drug crimes. Herein, an optimized paper-based surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) platform with patterned printing of plasmonic nanoparticles was constructed for the on-site quick testing of illegal drugs in urine. The filter paper was first coated with a layer of positive-charged chitosan, so as to reduce its roughness by filling the holes of the cellulose matrix and enhance the adhesion of negative-charged silver ink. Subsequently, hydrophobic modification was performed based on the binary silylation reaction, which could obviously improve the sensitivity of the paper-based SERS substrate by concentrating the amount of analyte. Meanwhile, SERS-active silver ink was fabricated and further printed on the surface of the above modified paper with custom-designed pattern (3 × 6). The performance of this SERS platform was assessed by using crystal violet (CV) as a model tag, and the obtained results proved it possesses excellent sensitivity and reproducibility, in which the relative standard deviation (RSD) dropped remarkably. More importantly, as a proof of concept, rapid detection of standard methylamphetamine (MAMP), one of the most widely abused drugs, was achieved with a limit of detection (LOD) of 1.43 ppb using a portable Raman spectrometer. And it also had a good capability in human urine sample detection, with a correlation index (R2) up to 0.9927. This optimized paper-based SERS platform was easily manufactured, cheap, and portable, providing a new strategy for the on-site detection of illicit drugs.