Illicit Drug Production Research Articles

Essential/precursor chemical control research: Giommoni's review, understanding multi-replication interrupted time series analysis, and next steps

Controls on essential/precursor chemicals from commercial companies have been associated with many large downturns in illicit drug markets and attendant problems. My colleagues and I brought this to light in the studies that are the subject of Giommoni's review. McKetin et al. in an earlier review considered several of our studies on chemical controls for methamphetamine, all centered in North America. Giommoni discusses not only those studies but also our later work on chemical controls for cocaine and heroin. This later work evaluates US essential/precursor chemical policies targeting illicit drug producers outside of North America, and it examines impacts on illicit drug availability and use (the studies reviewed by McKetin et al. predominantly focused on outcomes such as drug-related hospitalizations, arrests, and treatment). Giommoni's review is a new resource that will help make the varied topics in essential/precursor chemical control research more accessible to many readers. After noting this, I discuss some common methodological misconceptions about our studies. For example, our studies generally used multi-replication interrupted time series analysis, a research design among the most powerful of all quasi-experimental designs. Authors, however, typically discuss the studies as if they used single-intervention interrupted time series analysis, a less powerful design. Multi-replication and single-intervention interrupted time series analyses also differ regarding likely confounders; awareness of this is critical to accurately assessing our findings and critiquing alternative explanations. Finally, I note that commercial chemical companies function as the silent, albeit usually unwitting, partners in the large-scale production of several illicit drugs, including fentanyl. And many governments are implementing essential/precursor chemical controls to help stymie this partnership. But they are doing so largely without evaluation and study—a poor policy practice. To remedy this, I suggest establishing multi-disciplinary applied research teams to help assess, guide and improve essential/precursor chemical control efforts.

A Deep Learning Approach to Investigating Clandestine Laboratories Using a GC-QEPAS Sensor

Illicit drug production in clandestine laboratories involves the use of large quantities of different chemicals that can be obtained for legitimate purposes. The identification of these chemicals, including reagents, catalyzers and solvents, is crucial for forensic investigations. From a legal point of view, a drug precursor is a material that is specific and critical to the production of a finished chemical and that constitutes a significant portion of the final molecular structure of the drug. In this study, a gas chromatography quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy (GC-QEPAS) sensor—in conjunction with a deep learning model—was evaluated for its effectiveness in the detection and identification of interesting compounds for the production of amphetamine, methamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), phenylcyclohexyl piperidine (PCP), and cocaine. The GC-QEPAS sensor includes a gas sampler, a fast GC for separation, and a QEPAS detector, which excites molecules exiting the GC column using a quantum cascade laser to provide the infra-red (IR) spectrum. The on-site capability of the GC-QEPAS system offers significant advantages over the current instruments employed in this field, including rapid analysis, which is crucial in field operations. This allows law enforcement to quickly identify specimens of interest on site. The system’s performance was validated by taking into account the limit of detection, repeatability, and within-laboratory reproducibility. The results showed excellent repeatability and reproducibility for both the GC and QEPAS modules. The deep learning model, a multilayer perceptron neural network, was trained using IR spectra and retention times, achieving very high classification accuracy in the testing conditions. This study demonstrated the efficacy of the GC-QEPAS sensor combined with a deep learning model for the reliable identification of drug precursors, providing a robust tool for law enforcement during criminal investigations in clandestine laboratories.

Chiral analysis of ostarine in commercially available products and doping control urine samples

Various substances classified as prohibited in sport by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) comprise one or more chiral centers. One such substance is enobosarm ((2S)-3-(4-cyanophenoxy)-N-[4-cyano-3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-2‑hydroxy-2-methylpropanamide, S-ostarine, S-22, MK-2866, GTx-024, VERU-024). Although ostarine is not an approved drug, it has been readily available via Internet-based suppliers, and to date it is unknown to what extent R-ostarine, S-ostarine, or a mixture of both is used in these products. Likewise, such information is not available with regards to urine samples that returned an adverse analytical finding in the context of sports drug testing programs and, hence, this pilot-study aimed at establishing a test method to provide first insights into the presence of R- and S-ostarine in commercially available products and in authentic doping control urine samples.Here, a chiral liquid chromatographic - mass spectrometric method, employing a teicoplanin-containing (chiral) stationary phase that allows the differentiation of R- and S-enantiomers of ostarine, is presented. Ostarine products were extracted and diluted prior to analysis, while urine samples were prepared for analysis by enzymatic hydrolysis followed by liquid-liquid extraction.Seven products declaring to contain ostarine were investigated, five of which were ordered via the Internet and two were confiscated and made available by a customs authority. Only 2 of the 5 purchased products contained ostarine. In these two products and the confiscated products, only the ostarine S-enantiomer was found. Further, five authentic doping control urine samples containing the target analyte were subjected to chiral analysis, also confirming the sole presence of the S-ostarine enantiomer.The developed approach proved suitable for the separation of ostarine enantiomers, which adds further information e.g. in the context of illicit drug production, trafficking, and doping controls, especially when additional details are desirable that might assist in determining the origin of a drug or drug residue.

Teaching Ethics and Core Values in Chemistry Education—Call for Papers

Abstract In October 2015, the The Hague Ethical Guidelines were adopted by OPCW and were endorsed by IUPAC 4 May 2016. In line with that development, attention has been focused on formulating core values for chemists, focusing specifically on the ethical aspects of the use of chemical knowledge, as well as the use of chemicals within the environment. There are many examples of misuse of chemical knowledge, as demonstrated in the TV series Breaking Bad focusing on the production of illicit drugs. Within chemical industry the use of (micro)plastics, the use and production of pesticides is another issue. Within education, codes of academic conduct have always played an important role. Recently more attention has been given in education to ethical use of chemical knowledge and the relationship between the use of chemically produced compounds, and the production of chemical compounds and the environment. This is demonstrated for example by the development of Green Chemistry.

О мерах по противодействию деятельности организованных преступных групп в сфере незаконного оборота наркотиков в новых условиях

Purpose of the study: analysis of measures and directions of countering the activities of organized criminal groups in the field of drug trafficking in new conditions. Research methods: logical, system-structural, statistical methods of scientific knowledge of social processes and phenomena are used in the work. Conclusions: neutralization of the activities of organized criminal groups operating in the field of drug trafficking is one of the strategic directions of international and national anti-drug policy. Of particular concern are the problems associated with the increase in the volume of illicit drug production in areas that are not sufficiently controlled by the authorities, as well as in zones of armed conflict. The Russian Federation actively uses international platforms to promote national approaches in the field of international drug control. However, international cooperation in this area has recently become highly politicized, which has a negative impact on the effectiveness of combating illicit organized drug trafficking, while there is an active merging of the drug business and terrorism. In this regard, the criminal drug market and organized criminal activities in the field of drug trafficking require close attention. Scientific and practical significance: the analysis presented in the article allows us to adequately assess the current situation and develop regulatory and organizational measures to counter organized criminal activity in the field of drug trafficking in new conditions.

Investigating the Illicit Manufacture of Pharmaceutical Drugs in Sri Lanka-A Case Study on the Underworld of Counterfeit Drugs

The pharmaceutical drug industry is engaged in the research, development, manufacture and marketing of drugs and medications, which plays a major role in the healthcare industry. The global demand for the pharmaceutical drugs is on the rise, and unfortunately there is a concurrent increase in the illicit production of these drugs worldwide. This surge can be attributed to factors such as high demand, potential for profit, weak regulatory oversight and desire to exploit gaps in the legal market. Despite pharmaceutical drugs are intended for the treatment of medical conditions and pain relief, there is growing trend of illicit drug abusers to misusing these substances. Reports indicate a significant number of unlicensed pharmacies in Sri Lanka, but fewer accounts of illicit manufacturing of pharmaceutical drugs. In April 2023, the Police Narcotic Bureau officers arrested a building in a densely populated area in Colombo, Sri Lanka, suspecting it to be a clandestine laboratory for the production of illicit drugs. Subsequently, the Government Analyst of Sri Lanka was tasked with investigating the suspected clandestine laboratory. A team of forensic analysts from Government Analyst’s Department (GAD) visited the site, scrutinized the location, examined the equipment and chemicals and collected samples for further analysis. Although the clandestine laboratory was abandoned at the time of visit, evidence of machinery used for filling capsules, various chemicals, chemical glassware and other equipment were observed. Preliminary tests for illicit drugs and handheld Raman Spectroscopy testing were conducted at the scene. Gas Chromatography – Mass Spectroscopy (GCMS) was performed on the collected samples in the GAD laboratory. The analysis revealed the samples collected from the clandestine laboratory contained the substances considered pharmaceutical drugs namely, Tramadol, Lidocaine, Niacinamide, Menthol and Chlorpheniramine.

Trends and challenges in the use of drugs as forensic evidence: A scientometric approach to map the current literature

AbstractThe rapid increase in the production and distribution of illicit drugs has led to vast amounts of data being generated through research and other publications, making it difficult to effectively distill and analyze current and emerging trends. The present study used a scientometric approach to identify trends and challenges in the use of drugs as an evidence type in forensic science by examining reference lists available in the INTERPOL IFSMS reports and the citation database Scopus. It has been identified that “new psychoactive substances” is one of the most frequently used keywords by authors, highlighting the swift response by communities to characterize these emerging compounds. However, it was also noted that despite drugs being a global threat, only limited international collaboration was observed between research groups and the majority of the studies are from authors affiliated within the same country. Finally, an argument is made to encourage a more comprehensive approach in aggregating results on drugs for greater transparency and broader distribution of findings.This article is categorized under: Forensic Chemistry > Mass Casualty Management Forensic Chemistry > Controlled and Emerging Drug Compounds

Prohibition on Opium Poppy Cultivation in Afghanistan:

Afghanistan is home to the largest illicit drug industry in the world. The depth, influence, and impact of its narco-economy remain unparalleled. Illicit drug production has become a dominant feature of Afghanistan’s landscape. The opium economy is pervasive and deeply entrenched. Afghanistan's opium economy has become the source of security rather than the state. Therefore, the degree of dependence on the opium economy has thus become unprecedented in the modern history of drug production. The dependence means any immediate attempt toward opium poppy prohibition/eradication will result in political and socioeconomic crises not only in Afghanistan but the transit states in the region as well. In context of narco-economy, this paper expostulate that the construction of security in traditional and nontraditional discourse are linear, i.e. detached from reality or suffers from moralistic constraint, and therefore, needs to be revisited in line with ground reality of Afghanistan and transit states at large. Deviating from conventional literature on drug-security nexus, the paper argues that a complete prohibition of poppy cultivation in Afghanistan is by far a larger security concern than its retention. This research paper, therefore, takes a cursory examination of the security implications and challenges that may ensue as a result of a diminished production capacity of Afghanistan’s opium economy either experienced through complete prohibition, eradication programs or through natural calamity.

Co-offending networks among members of outlaw motorcycle gangs across types of crime

AbstractOutlaw motorcycle gangs (OMCGs) have become synonymous with organised crime through engagement in criminal activities including illicit drug production and distribution, firearms trafficking, and serious violent crime. These crimes contribute significant social and economic harms in countries that feature a presence from these groups. The current paper uses network analytics to analyse the extent of co-offending within and across established clubs in Australia, including the relative involvement of senior, or office bearing, members. The majority of affiliates in this sample co-offended with another OMCG affiliate within the sample period, with office bearers, members, nominees and associates represented proportionally among co-offending networks to in the sample at large. However, within these clubs, criminal activities were conducted in small cliques or components of affiliates. This research supports the role of OMCGs as important facilitators of crime, and the role of co-offending in the criminal offending of affiliates. The findings hold important implications for understanding how offending is organised among OMCGs, differences between groups, differing levels of engagement from the club hierarchy.

Electrochemical Methodologies for the Detection of Traditional and Emerging Illicit Drugs

Drug abuse and drug addiction is a multifaceted problem which has for a long time had far-reaching societal and physical consequences. In recent years, these negative effects have been further exacerbated by an increase in the production, trafficking and consumption of illicit drugs. Furthermore, the introduction of potent synthetic analogues and compounds known as New Psychoactive Substances (NPS) to the illicit drug market and their rapid proliferation has lead to an unprecedented threat to public health and safety. As such, the necessity has grown for the development of robust screening methodologies for these compounds within forensic and clinical research. Electroanalytical chemistry has quickly become a popular and powerful tool to address such demands. Electrochemical sensors evade many of the pitfalls associated with conventional detection methods, allowing for exceptionally good analytical performance at minimal cost.Within this contribution we present the use of electrochemiluminescence (ECL) as a novel screening methodology for the detection of Synthetic Cannabinoids (SCs), which are the most prevalent group of NPS currently being monitored by the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. AB-CHMICA, NE-CHMIMO, BB-22 and 5F-ADB-PINACA were all successfully detected at relevant concentrations using the developed screen-printed electrode ruthenium-based sensor. While in its infancy, these results show the potential of ECL as a screening methodology for SCs and leave much to be explored including its applicability to street and biological samples.Moreover, we aim to highlight the diversity of electrochemical techniques toward illicit drug detection via investigation into the use of wearable electrochemical sensors for the detection of traditional cannabinoids and benzodiazepines.

Policing Illicit Drugs in the Pacific: The Role of Culture and Community on the Frontline

Transnational and organized crime has become more prominent in the Pacific region in recent years, leading to challenges for law enforcement agencies in the region. The production and trafficking of illicit drugs are common concerns that illustrate the nexus between transnational and local crime landscapes. This article discusses approaches to the policing of such crime used by Pacific law enforcement agencies and regional partners. Informed by regional agreements, national security strategies of Pacific Islands governments, and theory about security networks, the article argues that plural and hybrid policing approaches, more commonly associated with community policing, may be effective models to combat drug-related crime. These approaches can involve cultural, social, and hierarchical webs that act as security nodes or networks on the frontline against illicit activities. Given different strengths and weaknesses of the various approaches available, an integrated and multifaceted approach to addressing drug-related crime offers the best chance of success.

DNA on drugs (part 2): An extended study into the transfer and persistence of DNA onto illicit drug capsules using realistic scenarios

Capsules are now the main form of ecstasy rather than tablets in Australia and therefore their examination is of interest to forensic drug chemists in Australia and possibly elsewhere. Recently, we used controlled experimental conditions to show that capsules may be a source of DNA that can be used to identify those involved in production and distribution of illicit drugs. The question remains: in realistic scenarios where there are more unknowns, can we still detect DNA, and determine whose it is, on the exterior of capsules? The concept of comprehensive forensic intelligence and investigations – utilizing both biological and chemical signatures – relating to illicit drug preparations (i.e., the capsules and their contents) may be of great use to law enforcement. Experiments were conducted with both semi-realistic and realistic scenarios where two volunteers were asked to firstly use an encapsulator and mimic the loading of capsules, then Volunteer 1 would count out the capsules that Volunteer 2 prepared, and vice versa. This was to simulate the scenario where one person was involved in the assembly of the capsules which were then separated into smaller bags of 10 capsules by a second person for distribution. Gelatine and vegetable capsules were tested, with 10 replicates used per capsule type, scenario, and volunteer (total n = 80 capsules). Volunteer 2 was included as a contributor to the DNA profiles generated from 100% of samples handled by them within the semi-realistic scenario, whereas the other volunteer could be included as a contributor in 65% of samples. For the realistic scenario, profiles could be generated with the inclusion of both volunteers as profile contributors in 15% of samples and from just one of the volunteers in a further 50% of samples (therefore in total, either both or one of the volunteers were detected in 65% of realistic samples). Surprisingly, it was not necessarily the case that the last person to handle the capsule was the major or only contributor. The potential variability in the DNA quantities that could be deposited onto the capsules of genuine illicit drugs is high and would vary on a case-by-case basis. Nevertheless, this study has indicated that in realistic scenarios where two people are involved in the later stages of illicit drug capsule preparation, that either one or both individuals may be identified, potentially opening new investigative leads for law enforcement agencies as well as offering new information for intelligence-led policing.

On-site illicit-drug detection with an integrated near-infrared spectral sensor: A proof of concept

Illicit-drug production, trafficking and seizures are on an all-time high. This consequently raises pressure on investigative authorities to provide rapid forensic results to assist law enforcement and legal processes in drug-related cases. Ideally, every police officer is equipped with a detector to reliably perform drug testing directly at the incident scene. Such a detector should preferably be small, portable, inexpensive and shock-resistant but should also provide sufficient selectivity to prevent erroneous identifications. This study explores the concept of on-site drugs-of-abuse detection using a 1.8 × 2.2 mm2 multipixel near-infrared (NIR) spectral sensor that potentially can be integrated into a smartphone. This integrated sensor, based on an InGaAs-on-silicon technology, exploits an array of resonant-cavity enhanced photodetectors without any moving parts. A 100% correct classification of 11 common illicit drugs, pharmaceuticals and adulterants was achieved by chemometric modelling of the response of 15 wavelength-specific pixels. The performance on actual forensic casework was investigated on 246 cocaine-suspected powders and 39 MDMA-suspected ecstasy tablets yielding an over 90% correct classification in both cases. These findings show that presumptive drug testing by miniaturized spectral sensors is a promising development ultimately paving the way for a fully integrated drug-sensor in mobile communication devices used by law enforcement.

Psychological Research on Drug-related Crimes in Vietnam from the Criminological Perspective

In recent times, despite the situation of the Covid-19 epidemic has had serious developments on a global scale, drug crimes in the world, in the region and in the country have continued to be very complicated. Southeast Asia is considered one of the world’s major illicit drug production centers. Vietnam is not in the group of large illegal drug producing countries, however, with its unique geographical position, border, road and sea routes stretching from the north to the south, causing difficulties in fighting drug crime. Research on drug offenders from the perspective of criminology shows that the psychological formation of drug crimes comes from reasons such as economy, society, culture, law, and people’s intellectual level. On that basis, the article proposes some solutions to improve the effectiveness of the prevention of drug-related crimes.

Changes in drug availability patterns on Tanzanian mainland: The effects of the surge operations deterrent strategy

This study investigated the recent changes in illegal substances availability on the Tanzanian mainland as a result of the government's surge operations as a deterrent approach against illicit drug production, trafficking and usage from 2017 to 2020, as well as the consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic on the drug market. Overall, 247467 seizures of illegal substances weighing 25357.9 kg were tested at The Government Chemist Laboratory Authority (GCLA), an average of 6339.5 kg annually. According to the findings, cannabis was the most frequently encountered substance, accounting for 80.6%, 88.2%, and 83% of all incidents, samples, and weight, respectively. Heroin came in second with 12.6% of the total incidents and 7.4% of the total number of samples, while khat came in second with 15.2% of the weight of the seized illegal substances during the period under study. Apart from a 202 and 4709 decline in heroin incidents and samples, the weight jumped from 15.3 kg in 2017 to 303.5 kg in 2020. Generally, the overall weight of the seizures decreased by 67.3% from 13036.4 kg in 2017–3890.7 kg in 2020. The results were particularly noticeable in the case of cannabis, which plunged by 76.5% from 11771.1 kg in 2017–2727 kg in 2020. Despite the eruption of the COVID-19 pandemic and associated lockdowns and travel limitations, heroin seizures increased by 67.4% in 2020 compared to the preceding three years combined.

Land formalization – The new magic bullet in counternarcotics? A case study of coca cultivation and tenure (in)formality from Colombia

Both policymakers and scholars have suggested that informal land tenure contributes to the perpetuation of illicit drug crop cultivation and, conversely, that land formalization programs serve counternarcotics aims. This article examines some of the key causal mechanisms said to underlie the posited relationship between land tenure (in)formality and the cultivation of crops used for illicit drug production. Our analysis is grounded in the context of Puerto Asís, Colombia – one of the most important coca-producing municipalities in a country that produces the majority of the world’s cocaine. The case study is based on extensive fieldwork in Puerto Asís, including in-depth interviews with peasants who cultivate(d) coca, community leaders and local officials. We found: (i) that informal and semiformal institutions provide a basic level of land tenure security for both those with and without state-recognized property titles; (ii) that peasants invest considerable amounts of money and labor in their farms and community infrastructures, despite lacking formal land titles; (iii) that coca cultivation itself is a comparatively costly investment, with eighteen months minimum before payback; (iv) that peasants’ access to credit is not conditioned on them having a formal land title; (v) that bank loans do not make people less dependent on coca cultivation; and that (vi) farmers find it difficult to survive with legal livelihoods and thus permanently exit the coca economy for a long list of reasons, which are not addressed via land titling and registration programs. These findings are contrary to popular policy narratives. We conclude that formal titles are an important tool for Colombian peasant farmers to defend their land against powerful external actors but will not necessarily serve the purposes commonly presented in the literature on illicit drugs.

Synthetic Drug Production in Belgium – Environmental Harms as Collateral Damage?

The production of illicit drugs contributes to important environmental harms. In the European context, the production of synthetic drugs, particularly MDMA and amphetamine (and more recently methamphetamine), increasingly poses environmental challenges. The production of these substances in Europe is mainly concentrated in the Netherlands and to a lesser extent in Belgium. In this contribution we focus on the Belgian case, particularly in Flanders—the Belgian region where synthetic drug production has been more present. The goals of our analysis are 1) to document the presence of illicit synthetic drug production and dumping of chemical waste material in that region, 2) to explore the media coverage of environmental harms associated with those activities, and 3) to identify the range of reported environmental harms. We draw on data from the Belgian Federal Police and on an analysis of 289 news articles published in selected Flemish newspapers (2013–2020). The findings indicate that although there is an increasing trend in the presence of synthetic drug production and dumping sites in Belgium, the details on the nature and extent of environmental harms are often unknown. Besides difficulties around detecting certain types of dumping events, there are also important blind spots in terms of the monitoring of environmental hazards by law enforcement agencies and how that information is shared among the relevant actors.

The Pat Jasan drug eradication social movement in northern Myanmar, part two: Deep culture & cultural psychology

Pat Jasan emerged as a largescale popular social movement in the Kachin region of northern Myanmar in 2014, with the objective of eradicating illicit drug production and consumption from the region. It has since been heavily criticized for its methods and opposition to harm reduction initiatives. The purpose of this paper is to understand better the cultural and psychological response to worsening drug issues that underpin the rise of Pat Jasan as a mass social movement. The paper contextualises two ways in which Pat Jasan frames the local drugs crisis: first, the sense of existential threat posed by drug related social harms; and second, the belief that ‘all’ Kachin households are negatively impacted by these harms. We outline the underpinning ideological beliefs upon which these frames rest. We discuss how even though non-Christian beliefs and practices have largely disappeared, they remain layered within the deep culture of attitudes towards drug use and how best to deal with the community-level harms that are believed to be created by such behaviours. Critically, the paper also draws attention to the largely unrecognized involvement of women as mobilizing forces of the Pat Jasan movement and how the movement leveraged popular feeling at a critical moment in the region's political history.

The Pat Jasan drug eradication social movement in Northern Myanmar, part one: Origins & reactions

This commentary provides an introduction to the origins and emergence of Pat Jasan, a social movement that emerged amongst the Kachin population of northern Myanmar in response to a perceived crisis of illicit drug production and consumption. Although frequently presented as a case of drug vigilantism, we seek move beyond this stereotype by providing a granular account of the historical, political, and cultural conditions that lay the ground for the movement's emergence. Pat Jasan arose in the context of intersecting crises linked to protracted armed violence, extractive development and the ‘slow violence’ associated with widespread drug use. It was a response to a perceived vacuum of policing and the limitations of internationally supported harmed reduction measures to recognize or address the magnitude of the problem. Taking seriously the socially embedded foundations of the Pat Jasan movement provides an entry point for exploring how notions of harm reduction are constructed and understood locally and how movements like Pat Jasan emerge in response to societal concerns surrounding drugs.

Beyond the narco frontier; rethinking an imaginary of the margins

The ‘narco-frontier’ is frequently invoked in policy and popular narratives about drugs and armed conflict. The frontier is represented as an unruly, marginal and ‘ungoverned’ space, a magnate for drug traffickers, rebels and migrants. These ‘non state’ or ‘anti state’ spaces are believed to have a comparative advantage in illegality, with borderlands and frontiers becoming centres for the production, consumption and trafficking of illicit drugs. Linked to this representation is a policy narrative and set of assumptions that statebuilding, peacebuilding, development and counter narcotics policies are mutually reinforcing, and involve the extension of a state presence into these frontier zones, along with effective drug eradication, substitution and development activities. In spite of the evident inaccuracy of this portrayal of the ‘narco-frontier’ the imaginary is extremely resilient and continues to be reflected and reinforced in policy texts and narratives. This paper asks why has this been the case. What ideological work does the imaginary perform and for whom? And what are the implications of an alternative imaginary of the margins?