Illegally Traded Research Articles

Mapping the geographic origin of captive and confiscated Hermann’s tortoises: A genetic toolkit for conservation and forensic analyses

The illegal trade has been threatening tortoise populations worldwide for decades. Nowadays, however, DNA typing and forensic genetic approaches allow us to investigate the geographic origin of confiscated animals and to relocate them into the wild, providing that suitable molecular tools and reference data are available. Here we assess the suitability of a small panel of microsatellite markers to investigate patterns of illegal translocations and to assist forensic genetic applications in the endangered Mediterranean land tortoise Testudo hermanni hermanni. Specific allelic ladders were created for each locus and tested on several reference samples. We used the microsatellite panel to (i) increase our understanding of the population genetic structure in wild populations with new data from previously unsampled geographic areas (overall 461 wild individuals from 28 sampling sites); (ii) detect the presence of non-native individuals in wild populations; and (iii) identify the most likely geographic area of origin of 458 confiscated individuals hosted in Italian seizure and recovery centers. Our analysis initially identified six major genetic clusters corresponding to different geographic macro-areas along the Mediterranean range. Long-distance migrants among wild populations, due to translocations, were found and removed from the reference database. Assignment tests allowed us to allocate approximately 70 % of confiscated individuals of unknown origin to one of the six Mediterranean macro-areas. Most of the assigned tortoises belonged to the genetic cluster corresponding to the area where the respective captivity center was located. However, we also found evidence of long-distance origins of confiscated individuals, especially in centers along the Adriatic coast and facing the Balkan regions, a well-known source of illegally traded individuals. Our results clearly show that the microsatellite panel and the reference dataset can play a beneficial role in reintroduction and repatriation projects when confiscated individuals need to be re-assigned to their respective macro-area of origin before release, and can assist future forensic genetic applications in detecting the illegal trade and possession of Testudo hermanni individuals.

Illegal capture and internal trade of wild Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in Sri Lanka

The illegal wildlife trade is considered one of the major threats to global biodiversity. Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) have been highly valued by various cultures for use in religious and spiritual contexts, as a draft animal, and more recently, as a tourist attraction. Thus, the demand for captive elephants is high. Wild Asian elephants are taken from the wild, often illegally, to maintain these captive populations due to the unviability of captive breeding programs. For the first time, we documented the extent to which wild elephants are being illegally captured and traded in Sri Lanka between January 2008 and December 2018. We collected data from case records maintained by the Sri Lanka court system where the suspects of illegal elephant trade were prosecuted in addition to information gathered by archives and interviews with various stakeholders. We documented 55 cases where elephants were illegally traded. This is probably an underestimate due to the mortality rate of elephants during capture operations, and challenges in collecting data on this highly organized illicit trade. Nearly equal numbers of male and female elephants were traded and more than 50% of them were juveniles, aged ≤5 years. Significantly more elephants were found to be seized in 2014–2015 than in the other time periods combined. We found evidence of the illegal capture of wild elephants from wildlife protected areas and state forests. More importantly, we identified evidence of corruption of wildlife officers, involvement of politicians and other high-ranking personnel in the illegal wildlife trade, and lack of active enforcement of wildlife law as major challenges to overcome if the illegal capture and domestic trade of wild elephants in Sri Lanka are to be halted. Based on our study, we make a series of recommendations that should result in implementing policy to reduce the trafficking of Asian elephants in Sri Lanka and improve the conservation management of the species.

Mitochondrial DNA analysis of critically endangered Chinese Pangolins (Manis pentadactyla) from Nepal

Chinese Pangolins (Manis pentadactyla) are Critically Endangered and one of the most illegally traded mammals globally. We generated first COI sequences from five individuals of this species from Nepal. BLASTn search of our 600 bp sequences at GenBank showed pair-wise identity between 99.17% and 100% to M. pentadactyla. There were three haplotypes and a total of five variable sites among five M. pentadactyla sequences. Neighbor-joining tree revealed that all M. pentadactyla from Nepal clustered into same group further splitting into two sub-groups albeit with low bootstrap value, suggesting potential multiple geographic origins. The K2P distance was 0.3% within group and 0.7% between four sequences from Bhaktapur and Kavrepalanchok districts (Mape2, Mape3, Mape5 and Mape6) and museum sample (Mape10). This study has generated reference samples for M. pentadactyla from Nepal and will be helpful in understanding dynamics of illegal trade of this species and in successful identification of M. pentadactyla from Nepal even in the absence of intact specimens.

Synthesis of wild orchid trade and demography provides new insight on conservation strategies

AbstractIllegal wildlife trade represents a global conservation priority, but the booming illegal trade in wild plants remains understudied. We use the Mexican orchid trade to illustrate an interdisciplinary approach to provide novel insight on conservation strategies and policies. We synthesize studies of orchid markets, national orchid confiscation records, CITES registers, and global population dynamics studies to document trade patterns and potential ecological impacts. We found 333 wild‐harvested orchid taxa illegally traded in domestic markets. Clear patterns emerged: 90% were epiphytic and <4% traded in high volumes, all of which had pseudobulbs and bloomed during cultural festivals. Most sales were pseudobulbs, not whole plants. Review of demographic studies indicates whole‐plant harvest is unviable but simulations show potential for sustainable harvest of pseudobulbs. The combination of social and ecological findings suggests a novel multipronged approach to improve conservation, including selective monitoring, enforcement focused on whole‐plant harvest, and community‐based wild harvest of pseudobulbs.

Exploiting the Wilderness: An Analysis of Wildlife Crime, Greg. L. Warchol

Reviewed by: Exploiting the Wilderness: An Analysis of Wildlife Crime by Greg L. Warchol Tariro Kamuti BOOK REVIEW of Warchol, Greg L. 2017. Exploiting the Wilderness: An Analysis of Wildlife Crime. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. 208 pp. Illegal wildlife trade is one of today's foremost challenges, and it has caused heated debates in contemporary conservation narratives, especially concerning how to address it in the face of the risk of extinction of some species. The book offers an eagle's-eye view by parsing the broad spectrum of issues related to illegal wildlife trade from the local to the global scale, with a focus on the "activities of individuals, informal networks, and criminal syndicates that target a range of animals and plants for personal use and profit" (5). The content of this book is clear, simple, concise, and layperson-friendly while being useful as a quick reference guide for experts. The author speaks from experience to give an empirically based exposition of, for instance, the intricate networks of illegal wildlife trade syndicates in particular countries in eastern and southern Africa, where he traveled extensively for more than fourteen years. Getting to the core of the illegal wildlife trade requires some explanation of the crime and its causes. Warchol finds no "simple explanation of this offense," as it is "driven by a myriad of influences that are the product of historical developments, opportunities[,] and consumer trends" (77). There is no better way to present this conundrum, which refers to how these historical developments shifted human–nature relations in ownership of, access to, and ultimately benefits derived from natural resources. For example, the transition from traditional African systems of managing wildlife resources to the colonial system of protected areas and private property rights (at the expense of people as they were relocated, marginalized, and eventually alienated from wildlife) caused tension between colonial powers and the dispossessed. As if that were not enough, the slow rate of land reform and genuine effort to mainstream the marginalized, which has been witnessed in the aftermath of the transition to self-rule in some African states, has perpetuated this skewed relationship, mired in resentment and resulting in further marginalization. In the same vein, there is a need to understand the markets that fuel the illegal wildlife trade. Warchol's use of descriptive social science research and applied criminological theory is helpful in this regard. It is the story of the poacher who always hogs the limelight, while in fact, he is only part of a long distribution chain, which eventually feeds the silent but rich consumer far afield. For this reason, one would argue that inasmuch as Exploiting Wilderness defines the "trade in wildlife" from the onset by focusing on the "legal and illegal components" (2), there is a need to problematize poaching in conjunction with consumer demand, as these concerns are not mutually exclusive to the distribution chain of wildlife products. This is because local communities shoulder the blame as poachers, right at the beginning of the distribution chain. They bear the brunt of deprivation while living close [End Page 143] to wildlife, and they face a state that has to coordinate the safeguarding of wildlife resources. This is a tall order for developing nations (which constitute the major source of illegally traded wildlife products), burdened with numerous other primary challenges, which require huge financial resources and institutional capacity. The entrenchment of militarized approaches to conservation has become a bone of contention from a human rights perspective, despite efforts toward strengthening the justice delivery system. Exploiting the Wilderness is a welcome contribution for attempting to expose the complexities of the illegal wildlife trade. It ends by outlining potential scenarios to provide various points of departure for those with a passion for species survival, sustainable communities, and stable states through collectively nurturing and equitably harnessing their natural resources. Tariro Kamuti University of Cape Town Copyright © 2019 The Trustees of Indiana University

Species conservation profiles of tarantula spiders (Araneae, Theraphosidae) listed on CITES.

BackgroundCITES is an international agreement between governments to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival. Regarding spiders, all species listed in CITES are tarantulas. They are included in Appendix II, meaning that they are species that are not necessarily now threatened with extinction but that they may become so unless trade is closely controlled.Many tarantulas are legally and illegally traded in the pet market and they are one of the most traded invertebrate groups. Originally, the CITES list published in 1995 included all the current species of the genus Brachypelma Simon, 1891 plus Aphonopelma pallidum (F. O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1897) and the so-called Aphonopelma albiceps (Pocock, 1903). After that, some taxonomic changes were done, as well as descriptions of new species in the genus Brachypelma. The objective of this paper is to assess the 21 taxonomically valid spider species listed on CITES according to the IUCN criteria, study the general patterns and trends and advise on possible future conservation actions critical for the survival of endangered species.New informationAmongst all 21 species assessed, 16 had sufficient data on their distribution, ecology and threats to properly understand their current status and suggest possible conservation measures. A decline in the area of occupancy (AOO) and extent of occurrence (EOO) was inferred to almost all species, caused mostly by human activities (urbanisation, roads, agricultural and touristic activities), which often lead to the complete loss of subpopulations across their range. Hurricanes and frequent rising water, which are increasing in frequency due to climate change, can cause decline in habitat quality and consequent change in EOO and AOO of some species and should also be considered when planning conservation actions. Severe fragmentation was detected in 13 species and is therefore one of the most relevant threats to the most endangered Brachypelma species and should be made a priority aspect to deal with when proposing conservation actions for the group. Regarding the loss of individuals in wild populations, the main cause seems to be the overharvesting to meet the illegal trade.The most important conservation actions identified across species include preserving their natural habitat through protected areas, establishing management plans for both the species and their habitats and undertaking systematic monitoring to provide information about population recovery and species re-introduction programmes. In general, we propose to prioritise and support research on the population trends and distribution, as well as on the impact of land use and habitat degradation. Special attention regarding conservation actions and research plans has to be given to the central Pacific coastal area of Mexico, particularly around Guerrero State where five species of Brachypelma occur. Critically, for some of the most endangered species, such as B. baumgarteni and B. hamorii, there is no official protected area in their range of occurrence. It would therefore be highly recommended to establish at least one conservation unit which focuses on protecting each of these species in situ. In some cases, basic taxonomic research is needed before development of any appropriate conservation action can be proposed.

Thirty-six years of legal and illegal wildlife trade entering the USA

AbstractThe USA is the largest consumer of legally, internationally-traded wildlife. A proportion of this trade consists of species listed in the Appendices of CITES, and recorded in the CITES Trade Database. Using this resource, we quantified wildlife entering the USA for 82 of the most frequently recorded wildlife products and a range of taxonomic groups during 1979–2014. We examined trends in legal trade and seizures of illegally traded items over time, and relationships between trade and four national measures of biodiversity. We found that: (1) there is an overall positive relationship between legal imports and seizures; (2) Asia was the main region exporting CITES-listed wildlife products to the USA; (3) bears, crocodilians and other mammals (i.e. other than Ursidae, Felidae, Cetacea, Proboscidea, Primates or Rhinocerotidae) increased in both reported legal trade and seizures over time; (4) legal trade in live specimens was reported to be primarily from captive-produced, artificially-propagated or ranched sources, whereas traded meat was primarily wild sourced; (5) both seizures and legally traded items of felids and elephants decreased over time; and (6) volumes of both legally traded and seized species were correlated with four attributes of exporting countries: species endemism, species richness, number of IUCN threatened species, and country size. The goal of our analysis was to inform CITES decision-making and species conservation efforts.

Nuclear and plastid SNP markers for tracing Cedrela timber in the tropics

Illegal logging and trade of timber are major worldwide concerns, resulting in biodiversity and economic losses. Tropical tree species in the genus Cedrela, which have historically been heavily exploited, are still often illegally traded and there is an urgent need to develop tools to verify the origin of Cedrela products. A set of 351 SNP loci for Cedrela species from Bolivia, Brazil, Costa Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, French Guiana, Mexico, and Peru was developed using restriction associated DNA sequencing (RADSeq) and low coverage MiSeq genome sequencing, and adapted for MassARRAY genotyping. After screening of 94 individuals covering most of the distribution of Cedrela, a final set of 136 SNP loci which included 92 nuclear SNPs, 22 chloroplast markers (20 SNPs and 2 INDELs), and 22 mitochondrial markers (19 SNPs and 3 INDELs) was selected and tested for potential to verify Cedrela timber origin.

The role of the anthropogenic Allee effect in the exotic pet trade on Facebook in Thailand

The impact of the wildlife trade has been accentuated in the Internet age where social media platforms have offered accessible and consumer-friendly avenues in the way species are legally and illegally traded. We explored the exotic pet trade on a social media platform, Facebook, in Thailand. Over the 18-month period, we recorded 761 posts of primates and carnivores’ species, totalling 1190 individuals from 42 species.Using Generalised Linear Models, we developed hypotheses to explain price dynamics. Variables include, species’ native status (if species are found in Thailand), domestic protection (if species are protected under Thai wildlife laws), international regulation (species CITES listing) and species threatened status (species IUCN Red Listing). Overall, we found evidence of an anthropogenic Allee effect where exotic imports from South America and Africa were significantly more expensive than native species (Wald χ2 = 969.72, df = 13, p < 0.05). Trade in these legally imported non-native wildlife species contributed to 11% of posts. Illegal trade of native species contributed to 66% of posts. When considering only native species, trends toward an anthropogenic Allee effect were observed where protected illegal species called for higher prices than legal species.Illegal wildlife trade on Facebook was blatant, easily accessible and unchecked. Discrepancies in current domestic wildlife legislation lead to intentional evasion of laws and a lack of enforcement. Disproportionate desire for rare or protected species encourages a cycle of exploitation that threatens species to extinction.

To What Extent Is Social Marketing Used in Demand Reduction Campaigns for Illegal Wildlife Products? Insights From Elephant Ivory and Rhino Horn

The illegal wildlife trade is a global threat to biodiversity as well as to public health and good governance. As legislation and law enforcement have been insufficient to protect many wildlife species, conservationists are increasingly focused on campaigns to help reduce demand for wildlife products. Social marketing is increasingly being used to support biodiversity conservation efforts, but the extent of its use has seldom been researched. Based on interviews with conservation practitioners, we assess the extent to which social marketing has been used in demand reduction campaign design. We do this by investigating the level to which demand reduction campaigns met the benchmarks defined by the UK’s National Social Marketing Centre. We focus on rhino horn and elephant ivory, two high-profile products in the illegal wildlife trade and in China and Vietnam given their role as key consumer countries. We also investigate how conservation practitioners view the opportunities and challenges of using social marketing in the context of reducing demand for illegally traded wildlife products. Our findings highlight that there are substantial gaps between best practice in social marketing and current practices in the design of demand reduction campaigns. However, several elements of social marketing are widely utilized and a platform exists from which to build more comprehensive behavioral influence campaigns in future. In terms of future needs, practitioners highlighted the need for independent consumer research upon which to build target audience insights, a focus on broader audience segments beyond the product consumers, and the improvement of collaborations across institutions.

Assessing consumer trends and illegal activity by monitoring the online wildlife trade

Wildlife ranks the fourth among illegally traded items. The insatiable market demand for wildlife products directly threatens plants, animals and their natural habitats. Identifying illegal trade and understanding consumer trends is important for the conservation of overexploited species. The internet and social media have emerged as popular platforms for wildlife trade, and surveying these marketplaces is an important tool for conservation. Due to their high demand and high value, we choose turtles as a case study to demonstrate the usefulness of monitoring the online trade. We collected data (species, number and price) on the sale of live turtles from a Hong Kong-based internet forum for 36 months (September 2013–August 2016) to assess the scale of the trade, identify potential illegal trade and investigate factors that influence prices. We recorded 14,360 individuals of 136 species, including 67 threatened species. Of the 77 species sold that are listed in CITES appendices, 36% were likely illegally traded as they had neither possession licenses under Hong Kong law nor CITES import records. Turtles with the highest prices tended to be critically endangered species, wild-caught or those with special morphological forms. Sale of hybrid turtles of 38 “species/varieties” occurred in 4% of all sale posts. Our survey of the online trade in Hong Kong discovered important trends of sale price and consumer preference, collected baseline data for enforcing trade regulations and highlighted likely illegal trade of turtles. We encourage similar studies for other highly traded wildlife to be incorporated into integrative approaches for conservation management.

The emergence of a commercial trade in pangolins from Gabon

AbstractRecent seizures of illegally held wildlife indicate a mounting global trade in pangolins involving all eight species. Seizures of illegally traded African pangolins are increasing as wild populations of Asian species decline. We investigated trade in pangolins and law enforcement efforts in Gabon; a country likely to have intact wild populations of three of the four species of African pangolin. We compared village sales and trade chains between 2002‐2003 and 2014. Hunters reported pangolins to be the most frequently requested species in 2014, and the value of pangolins had increased at every point along their trade chain. In Libreville, giant pangolin prices increased 211% and arboreal pangolin prices 73% whilst inflation rose only 4.6% over the same period. We documented a low rate of interception of illegally traded pangolins despite increased law enforcement. Surveys of potential export routes detected exports across forest borders, in conjunction with ivory, but not through public transport routes. We conclude that whilst there is clear potential and likelihood that a wild pangolin export trade is emerging from Gabon, traditional bushmeat trade chains may not be the primary supply route. We recommend adjusting conservation policies and actions to impede further development of illegal trade within and from Gabon.

Implementation of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and Law No. 5 of 1990 in Law Enforcement Efforts and Guarantees of Environmental Rights in Gunung Leuser National Park, Indonesia

Indonesia is renowned for its abundant natural resources and vast biodiversity. However, Indonesia also has wildlife species that are most vulnerable to the threat of extinction. Illegal wildlife trade poses a serious threat to the preservation of wildlife in Indonesia. Wildlife illegally traded based on facts found in the field is mostly a catch from nature, not from captive breeding. Gunung Leuser National Park (Taman Nasional Gunung Leuser, TNGL) as one of the national parks in Indonesia faces problems in the protection of this wildlife. This is triggered by the process of industrialization, illegal logging activities and crimes against protected wildlife. Wildlife protection in Indonesia and internationally is regulated legally through Law No.5 of 1990 and internationally through the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The role of local government, BKSDA TNGL, and related agencies in suppressing the extinction rate provides an understanding to the community of TNGL conservation areas, in particular, to reduce conflicts and clearance of plantation land by utilizing the concept of environmentally sustainable development as well as providing the mitigation measures.

International trade in endangered species: the challenges and successes of the 17th conference of parties to the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora (CITES)

International trade in endangered species: the challenges and successes of the 17th conference of parties to the convention on international trade in endangered species of wild fauna and flora (CITES)

Forensic application of DNA barcoding for identification of illegally traded African pangolin scales.

The escalating growth in illegal wildlife trade and anthropogenic habitat changes threaten the survival of pangolin species worldwide. All eight extant species have experienced drastic population size reductions globally with a high extinction risk in Asia. Consequently, forensic services have become critical for law enforcement, with a need for standardised and validated genetic methods for reliable identifications. The seizure of three tonnes of pangolin scales, believed to have originated from Africa, by Hong Kong Customs Authorities provided an opportunity for the application of DNA barcoding in identifying scales. Three mitochondrial DNA gene regions (COI, Cyt b, and D-loop) were amplified for a subsample of the confiscated material and compared with taxonomically verified references. All four African species were recovered as monophyletic with high interspecific uncorrected p-distance estimates (0.048-0.188) among genes. However, only three of four African species (Phataginus tricuspis, Phataginus tetradactyla, and Smutsia gigantea, originating from West and Central Africa) and one of four Asian species (Manis javanica from Southeast Asia) were identified among scales. Although the assignment of unknown scales to specific species was reliable, additional genetic tools and representative reference material are required to determine geographic origins of confiscated pangolin specimens.

The Illegal Wildlife Trade Is a Likely Source of Alien Species

AbstractThe illegal wildlife trade is driving biodiversity declines worldwide, yet its role in transporting alien species with a high likelihood of establishment is seldom considered. We demonstrate the threat posed by the illegal reptile trade in Australia. We modeled the establishment success of alien reptiles in Australia, revealing the importance of both minimum number of release events and the body length of the species. Using our model, we screened 28 alien reptiles illegally traded in Victoria, Australia. Establishment risk varied widely across species, and a whole‐pathway analysis revealed that 5 out of the 28 species (17.9%) are likely to become established if released. The global dimension of the illegal wildlife trade calls for a tight transnational collaboration, via multilateral cooperation agreements arranging the share of resources. Complementary to this, we encourage conducting campaigns to raise public awareness about the risk and legal consequences of participating in the wildlife black market.

Frequency of zoonotic bacteria among illegally traded wild birds in Rio de Janeiro.

The illegal wildlife trade may increase the risk of infectious disease transmission, and it may not only cause disease outbreaks in humans but also threaten livestock, native wild populations, and ecosystems’ health. Bird species may act as carriers in the transmission of enteric pathogens. However, epidemiological studies on zoonotic bacteria in wild birds are rare in Brazil. From March 2011 to March 2012, we investigated the frequency of Enterobacteriaceae in cloacal swab samples from 109 birds of the passerine and Psittacidae families. These birds were recovered from illegal trade in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and sent to a rehabilitation center. Gram-negative bacteria were isolated from 86 wild birds (78.9%). A mean (±SD) of 1.68 (±1.30) different bacterial species were isolated per bird, with a maximum of five bacterial species from three bird species. The most frequently isolated bacteria were Escherichia coli, followed by Enterobacter spp., Klebsiella pneumoniae and other enteric bacteria. Salmonella ser. Typhimurium was isolated from a Temminck's seedeater (Sporophila falcirostris), and two Salmonella ser. Panama were isolated from two specimens of chestnut-capped blackbird (Chrysomus ruficapillus). Of the 70 selected bacterial isolates, 60 exhibited antibiotic resistance. The resistance patterns varied from one to nine of the antibiotics tested. Resistance to ceftiofur was the most prevalent, followed by ampicillin and ceftriaxone. The dissemination potential of resistant strains in situations typically seen in the management of captive birds may become a problem for the conservation of natural bird populations and for public health.

Assessing the extent and nature of wildlife trade on the dark web

Use of the internet as a trade platform has resulted in a shift in the illegal wildlife trade. Increased scrutiny of illegal wildlife trade has led to concerns that online trade of wildlife will move onto the dark web. To provide a baseline of illegal wildlife trade on the dark web, we downloaded and archived 9852 items (individual posts) from the dark web, then searched these based on a list of 121 keywords associated with illegal online wildlife trade, including 30 keywords associated with illegally traded elephant ivory on the surface web. Results were compared with items known to be illegally traded on the dark web, specifically cannabis, cocaine, and heroin, to compare the extent of the trade. Of these 121 keywords, 4 resulted in hits, of which only one was potentially linked to illegal wildlife trade. This sole case was the sale and discussion of Echinopsis pachanoi (San Pedro cactus), which has hallucinogenic properties. This negligible level of activity related to the illegal trade of wildlife on the dark web relative to the open and increasing trade on the surface web may indicate a lack of successful enforcement against illegal wildlife trade on the surface web.

Cryptic diversity revealed by DNA barcoding in Colombian illegally traded bird species.

Colombia is the country with the largest number of bird species worldwide, yet its avifauna is seriously threatened by habitat degradation and poaching. We built a DNA barcode library of nearly half of the bird species listed in the CITES appendices for Colombia, thereby constructing a species identification reference that will help in global efforts for controlling illegal species trade. We obtained the COI barcode sequence of 151 species based on 281 samples, representing 46% of CITES bird species registered for Colombia. The species analysed belong to nine families, where Trochilidae and Psittacidae are the most abundant ones. We sequenced for the first time the DNA barcode of 47 species, mainly hummingbirds endemic of the Northern Andes region. We found a correct match between morphological and genetic identification for 86-92% of the species analysed, depending on the cluster analysis performed (BIN, ABGD and TaxonDNA). Additionally, we identified eleven cases of high intraspecific divergence based on K2P genetic distances (up to 14.61%) that could reflect cryptic diversity. In these cases, the specimens were collected in geographically distant sites such as different mountain systems, opposite flanks of the mountain or different elevations. Likewise, we found two cases of possible hybridization and incomplete lineage sorting. This survey constitutes the first attempt to build the DNA barcode library of endangered bird species in Colombia establishing as a reference for management programs of illegal species trade, and providing major insights of phylogeographic structure that can guide future taxonomic research.

Promise and Challenge of DNA Barcoding in Venus Slipper (Paphiopedilum).

Orchidaceae are one of the largest families of flowering plants, with over 27,000 species described and all orchids are listed in CITES. Moreover, the seedlings of orchid species from the same genus are similar. The objective of DNA barcoding is rapid, accurate, and automated species identification, which may be used to identify illegally traded endangered species from vegetative specimens of Paphiopedilum (Venus slipper), a flagship group for plant conservation with high ornamental and commercial values. Here, we selected eight chloroplast barcodes and nrITS to evaluate their suitability in Venus slippers. The results indicate that all tested barcodes had no barcoding gap and the core plant barcodes showed low resolution for the identification of Venus slippers (18.86%). Of the single-locus barcodes, nrITS is the most efficient for the species identification of the genus (52.27%), whereas matK + atpF-atpH is the most efficient multi-locus combination (28.97%). Therefore, we recommend the combination of matK + atpF-atpH + ITS as a barcode for Venus slippers. Furthermore, there is an upper limit of resolution of the candidate barcodes, and only half of the taxa with multiple samples were identified successfully. The low efficiency of these candidate barcodes in Venus slippers may be caused by relatively recent speciation, the upper limit of the barcodes, and/or the sampling density. Although the discriminatory power is relatively low, DNA barcoding may be a promising tool to identify species involved in illegal trade, which has broad applications and is valuable for orchid conservation.