Illegal Wildlife Trafficking Research Articles

Animal family discrimination from hair using ATR-FTIR and machine learning methods for applications in illegal wildlife trafficking.

Wildlife forensics plays a pivotal role in the combating illegal trafficking, supporting biodiversity conservation, and aiding in the identification of animals in wildlife. Animal hair, often found in trafficking crimes, serves as vital biological evidence that can provide significant information for animal identification. This study proposes a novel method integrating machine learning classifiers with Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy in attenuated total reflectance (ATR) mode to enhance the effectiveness of animal identification in wildlife forensic casework. Additionally, compound microscopy has also been utilized as a preliminary tool to perform morphological analysis of hair samples from four animal families, including Bovidae, Cervidae, Elephantidae, and Felidae. Further, chemical profiling through spectral data revealed significant overlapping peaks between family Bovidae and Cervidae. The classification experiment provides the random forest (RF) classifier as the most effective for family discrimination model. This research offers valuable insights for wildlife forensics by improving the identification accuracy of unknown hair samples, thus enhancing the overall effectiveness in forensic investigations.

Welfare of pet primates for sale in the United States

Welfare of pet primates for sale in the United States Dr. Melissa Seaboch, Professor and Department Chair at Salt Lake Community College, charts the welfare of pet primates for sale in the United States. Despite their unsuitability as pets, there are thousands, if not tens of thousands, of pet primates in the United States (1), and the U.S. ranks third out of 171 countries in the ease of purchasing a pet primate online. (2) Though the pet primate trade is robust, there are few federal regulations addressing the care of companion animals or pets. The Animal Welfare Act (AWA), often considered the minimum acceptable standard for animal care and use, governs the care of animals in multiple settings, including research labs, zoos, and commercial breeding facilities. PACT (Preventing Animal Cruelty and Torture) prevents the most egregious forms of animal cruelty, and the Lacey Act addresses interstate transportation and illegal wildlife trafficking. (3) None of these regulations address the care or welfare of pet primates.

WILDLIFE CONSERVATION: AN ANALYSIS OF MALAYSIA’S LEGAL FRAMEWORK FOR COMBATING ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE AND ENFORCING CITES COMPLIANCE TOWARDS A SUSTAINABLE FUTURE

Wildlife conservation represents a significant global challenge, particularly in nations abundant with biodiversity like Malaysia, where illegal wildlife trafficking jeopardises ecosystems and threatens endangered species. This paper analyses Malaysia's legal framework concerning wildlife conservation and its harmonisation with international agreements, notably the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Through an extensive examination of statutes and policies, this study elucidates Malaysia's endeavours to combat illegal wildlife trade and uphold adherence to CITES regulations. A central aspect of this analysis involves exploring Malaysia's strategy in reconciling conservation priorities with socio-economic considerations amidst the complexities of sustainable development. By critically assessing Malaysia's conservation landscape, this paper seeks to inform policymakers, engage stakeholders, and catalyse collective efforts towards fostering a more sustainable coexistence between wildlife and humanity.

Global wildlife trade and trafficking contribute to the world’s nonhuman primate conservation crisis

A growing global human population, habitat conversion, and the indiscriminate exploitation of natural resources have created unsustainable demands on nature, resulting in widespread biodiversity loss. Primates, which represent the third most specious Order of mammals, are facing an extinction crisis. Currently, 69% of primate species are listed by the IUCN as threatened (Vulnerable, Endangered, or Critically Endangered) and 94% have declining populations. Here, we examine two primary threats to primate population persistence, namely the commercialized hunting and capturing of wild primates and their body parts for food, traditional medicine, pets, and use in biomedical research. Both the legal wildlife trade and illegal wildlife trafficking represent multibillion-dollar industries that contribute to primate population decline, a reduction in genetic diversity, and local extirpation. Trade and trafficking also can lead to the emergence of infectious diseases, increasing biosecurity risks to humans. Between 2015 and 2021, CITES reported 337,511 live primates representing at least 99 species were legally traded, with 6.5% sourced directly from the wild. The recent indictment of Cambodian officials for allegedly laundering wild-caught long-tailed macaques into the U.S. by labelling them as captive-bred, highlights the need for greater transparency and accountability. Comprehensive data on the illegal trafficking of primates are extremely difficult to obtain. However, between 2009 and 2017, primates accounted for 20% of all seizures of illegally traded mammals in the air transport sector. International wildlife trafficking is dominated by criminal networks, corruption, and driven by the demands of wealthy consumers. In addition, the internet has expanded international opportunities to connect buyers and sellers of wild-caught primates and their body parts. Despite explicit bans on selling endangered primates, social media sites continue to do so. Moreover, data on the global food security index (GFSI) indicate that as the international demand for wild live primates, their meat, and other body parts has continued to increase, the majority of people in primate range nations have remained food insecure. Given that almost 70% of primate species are negatively impacted by hunting and trapping, we offer a set of recommendations to reduce the trade and trafficking of wild primates.

Relato de coccidiose em um trinca-ferro Saltator similis de vida-livre no Parque Nacional do Itatiaia no sudeste brasileiro

ABSTRACT: The green-winged saltator Saltator similis (d’Orbigny & Lafresnaye, 1837) is a passerine bird highly valued by bird breeders and a target of illegal wildlife trafficking. Coccidian chromists are etiological agents of coccidiosis, which may be asymptomatic and enzootic in bird populations when environmental conditions are favorable. However, epizootic outbreaks with severe disease can occur due to environmental changes. In this context, this study reports a case of coccidiosis in a free-living juvenile specimen of S. similis captured at the Itatiaia National Park in southeastern Brazil. Typical clinical signs of coccidiosis were observed, and it was associated with greenish mucoid diarrhea containing a high density of coccidian oocysts. Three Isospora spp. were specifically identified in 14 fecal samples (fecal droplets) collected over two hours. Isospora saltatori (Berto, Balthazar, Flausino & Lopes, 2008) had the highest density and positivity throughout most of the collection period. Finally, this paper discusses the importance of the continuous evaluation of the health of birds as bioindicators and their coccidian ecological biomarkers as one of the strategies for evaluating the conservation status of Itatiaia National Park.

Examining the Roles and Attitudes of the Local Community in Wildlife Conservation of Ethiopia

This short review summarizes the roles and behavioral responses of local communities towards wildlife conservation in Ethiopia. The inherent practices of local communities in their long‐held traditional and cultural setups give them an important role in conservation successes. Traditional wildlife conservation practices in Ethiopia are not well documented and have likely been heavily eroded due to changes in governmental regimes, each with different ideologies, the introduction of modern lifestyles and religions, and ethnic and cultural diversities. Local communities contribute a lot to wildlife conservation when they are allowed to participate in fighting illegal wildlife trafficking operations. The illegal wildlife trade (IWT) in Ethiopia is still a comparatively new phenomenon with a low scientific profile. The roles of local people both in the IWT and in prevention and conservation efforts remain undocumented, and research into these is at an early stage. Several studies have indicated the alienation of the local community and their subsequent antagonistic responses towards conservation efforts in different parts of Ethiopia. Eviction of indigenous people, benefit denial, unequal benefit sharing, and interactions with wildlife and human‐wildlife conflicts are the major factors fueling the resentment of local communities towards wildlife and their conservation. Thus, wildlife conservation in Ethiopia needs impartial studies and practical improvement to understand and address these human dimensions and inform more effective conservation and IWT prevention.

Good Luck or Bad Omen: Attitudes Towards the Slender Loris in the City of Bengaluru, India

Cities are characterised by social and cultural diversity. The management of urban wildlife requires developing a better understanding of cultural beliefs associated with wildlife in diverse urban settings. We document a range of cultural beliefs associated with the slender loris ( Loris lydekkerianus), an endemic, nocturnal primate, in the Indian megacity of Bengaluru. Many residents associate the loris with practices such as black magic, and they believe that the animal’s call is a bad omen that brings death and misfortune. Others consider it a harbinger of good luck that offers protection to young children. These superstitious beliefs may motivate illegal wildlife trafficking of the loris. Urbanisation has led to changes in these perceptions, and many respondents now report that they consider these beliefs to be old-fashioned superstitions that hold no place in a modern city. This study contributes to knowledge on changing urban attitudes to wildlife, which is vital to developing conservation strategies that involve local residents.

Hide‐and‐sniff: can anti‐trafficking dogs detect obfuscated wildlife parts?

AbstractWildlife detection dog (WDD) programs are increasingly being developed to combat illegal wildlife trafficking. However, there is little scientific research available on how sniffer dogs perform when wildlife parts are hidden during the smuggling process, which hampers the effectiveness of WDD programs. Here, we investigate the ability of WDDs to detect wildlife parts that are hidden in legally traded goods. We employed a smell test using the two most smuggled wildlife parts worldwide: elephant ivory and pangolin scales, in combination with two obfuscation items of plant and animal origin commonly employed by smugglers. We then established the sensitivity of the dogs to the target substances. Our results showed that there was a large variation between the two dogs in their sensitivity to ivory and pangolin scales. However, both dogs were generally less sensitive to ivory compared to pangolin scales, and stronger‐smelling obfuscation items could potentially lower the sensitivity of the dogs to the wildlife parts. Our study highlights the potential of dogs to detect hidden wildlife parts, but their effectiveness may depend on other aspects such as training, personality, the health of the dog, the type of wildlife substance, and the obfuscation item used. Given the variability of our findings, WDD programs need to invest in research to optimize the number and type of dogs with the right balance of traits to successfully detect wildlife parts that could potentially be obfuscated during smuggling.

Cooperation between China and ASEAN in Combating Wildlife Trade under the Framework of Regional Legal System

Because of its greater biodiversity, ASEAN has long been a source and transit hub for transnational wildlife trafficking. Although several international and domestic wildlife enforcement mechanisms have been established, the scope and effectiveness of international legal cooperation and policy coordination between China and ASEAN remain limited. Governments have been hampered in their efforts to combat wildlife trafficking by the difficulties of investigation and prosecution in overseas jurisdictions and the maintenance of illicit supply chains by organized crime groups. This paper reviews the main trends of legal and illegal wildlife trade between China and ASEAN, explores the existing legal and policy frameworks of ASEAN countries and China, and discusses the effectiveness of cooperation between China and ASEAN countries by referring to the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC). Finally, put forward the legal cooperation between China and ASEAN countries in combating transnational illegal wildlife trafficking.

Detecting illegal wildlife trafficking via real time tomography 3D X-ray imaging and automated algorithms

Wildlife trafficking is a global problem involving the deliberate and illegal transport of wildlife across international borders. Animals are either removed directly from their natural environment or bred specifically to fuel demand driven by activities such as the illegal pet trade or for purported medicinal reasons. In Australia, wildlife trafficking poses a serious environmental and biosecurity risk through the removal of native species and the introduction of exotic invasive wildlife. This has the potential to impact the natural ecosystem and Australia’s multibillion-dollar agricultural industry. To help detect and restrict this activity, innovative technologies such as 3D X-ray CT technology using Real Time Tomography has been trialed to create wildlife detection algorithms for deployment across Australian mail/traveller luggage pathways. Known species of trafficked Australian wildlife and additional model species of exotics were scanned to create an image reference library for algorithm detection. A total of 294 scans from 13 species of lizards, birds and fish were used to develop initial wildlife algorithms with a detection rate of 82% with a false alarm rate at 1.6%. In combination with human and biosecurity dog detection, this innovative technology is a promising complementary platform for wildlife detection at Australian international borders, with potential worldwide applications.

Impact of the Anthropocene on the status of the world's small carnivores: A global macroecological perspective

AbstractAimThe continued erosion of global biodiversity resulting from Earth's sixth mass extinction event has been particularly pronounced on mammalian carnivores. Here, we evaluated the status of the world's small carnivore species (SCS) (<15 kg), examined their trending status and assessed the threats they face globally and regionally.LocationWorldwide.TaxonSmall carnivore species.MethodsUsing a global 100 km2 grid, we analysed the impact of 12 variables (anthropogenic and landscape) on general small carnivore richness (SCR), threatened species richness and the number of declining SCS. We applied simple, multiple and simultaneous regression models to explore the associations between landscape conditions and human impacts on SCR.ResultsApproximately 22% (n = 49) of SCS are classified as threatened (vulnerable, endangered and critically endangered), with the largest number occurring in the Indo‐Malayan, followed by the Afrotropical regions. The family Mustelidae had the greatest number of threatened species, followed by the Felidae, Viverridae and Eupleridae. Euplerids, however, had the highest proportion of threatened species (90%). Human accessibility had the strongest negative impact on global species richness, whereas landscape modification gradient, indigenous lands and intact forest structure, all predicted higher levels of overall and threatened SCR. Approximately 84% of SCS are threatened by illegal wildlife trafficking, with greatest proportion hailing from the Indo‐Malayan region, followed by the Afrotropical region.ConclusionsLandscape conditions play a leading role in the conservation of SCS. However, the impact of humans has dramatically modified the spatial patterns of small carnivores across the globe. We believe new incentives promoting more sustainable landscapes could facilitate coexistence between carnivores and human communities. We advocate for new policies promoting sustainable practices, which are needed to help mitigate extinction risk and facilitate coexistence with small carnivores across the planet's human‐dominated landscapes.

Optimizing DNA Analyses of Pangolin Products from the Trade for Species Identification in Vietnam

To support law enforcement related to illegal wildlife trafficking in Vietnam, DNA analyses have been widely used to identify species based on products seized from the trade. Pangolins are one of the most threatened mammal groups in Vietnam and across the world because they have been trafficked in huge numbers and considered the most traded mammals globally. Although the government and management agencies have implemented several deterrent measures to reduce the illicit trade of pangolins, a high number of violations with large seizures have still been detected in recent years in the country. Species identification of pangolin products is often challenging, as many products don’t have sufficient morphological diagnoses, especially their meat, hair, and scale. In this study, we present a protocol, which can be applied in laboratories in Vietnam, for extracting and amplifying a fragment of the mitochondrial cytochrome C oxidase subunit 1 (COI) from pangolin’s scales and hairs. This protocol was successfully employed to generate a fragment the COI gene from 10 confiscated pangolin samples. The results show for the first time that three samples originated from an African pangolin species and highlight the importance of applying molecular approaches to combating wildlife trafficking in Vietnam.

A Range-Wide Analysis of Legal Instruments Applicable to Jaguar Conservation

The jaguar (Panthera onca) is one of five Panthera cats facing global conservation concerns. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) considers the jaguar to be Near Threatened, and its global population has declined by an estimated 25% in 25 years. Current jaguar populations range from Mexico to Argentina with some individuals confirmed in the United States. For this article we compile and review the legal protections categorized in the constitution, national laws, and infra-legal level in each of those countries to identify the presence of government-approved endangered species lists, specific jaguar protection laws, government-approved jaguar management plans and human–wildlife conflict regulations, and the administrative and criminal sanctions for hunting and wildlife trade. We also note which laws allowed for legal killings of jaguar for hunting, subsistence use or conflict. We recommend that countries adopt jaguar-specific protection laws, establish and update administrative and criminal penalties, modify existing legislative language to ensure improved adoption, enforcement and prosecution, recognize non-binding management practices through legal channels, and harmonize legal policies across countries. We propose additional reviews on illegal wildlife trafficking, human–wildlife conflict, and enforcement, among others, to continue identifying legal gaps. This first range-wide assessment of and perspective on jaguar legislation illustrates opportunities for strengthening legal protections by comparing the variety of structures and approaches employed to conserve this important species.

National illegal wildlife trafficking of threatened species: a descriptive study in Manabí (Ecuador)

Illegal wildlife trafficking has negative effects on biodiversity conservation at both global and local scale. Therefore, the establishment of appropriate conservation measures requires local studies that quantify this problem. The objective of this work was to quantify and characterize the species of birds and mammals seized in the period 2016-2017, at the Valle Alto Wildlife Rescue Centre and Wildlife Refuge. The study showed that 212 specimens belonging to 41 different species were confiscated. More birds than mammals were confiscated, and a greater proportion of birds were included in a national and international threat category. A clear preference for primates, parrots and squirrels was found. Furthermore, the presence of species with a distribution range outside the study area revealed the existence of the transportation of species from other parts of the country. Although these data are only a sample of what is actually trafficked in the country, they provide an approach of the type of species that are illegally trafficked in this biodiversity hotspot.

Trend, Challenges and Opportunities of Illegal Wildlife Trafficking and Trade Activities within and through Ethiopia

Having improved knowledge on global, regional and/or national trends in illegal wildlife trade is required to develop effective combating strategies. In this paper, nine years (2011–2019) data on illegal wildlife trade and trafficking (iwt) seizure records were used to explore trends in iwt activities in Ethiopia and to identify countries involved most in the iwt. Trends of iwt activities were assessed in two indicators: as relative transaction index (ti), and as relative weight index (for ivory [wi]) or as relative number of items for ivory and other wildlife products [ni]. To account for potential yearly variations in seizure rates, proxy variables to law enforcement efforts and effectiveness were used and predictive models that produced bias-adjusted estimates of relative trends in iwt activities were built. To explore the underlying reasons for the trend observed, relevant national officers were also interviewed to assess how well has been wildlife law enforcement working in combatting iwt in the country. Linear or polynomial regressions, where appropriate, were fitted to the seizure data to establish trends in transaction index over the nine years. A total of 842 incidences of iwt seizure instance reports, involving 18 animal species, were recorded in the country during the nine years period. However, the highest seizure (94%) rate was ivory and ivory products. Our results generally showed declining trends in both ti and wi or ni. The observed trend was also supported by the experts’ opinions and likely reflects the positive impacts of the country’s implementation of its wildlife laws. Other interesting findings of this study were that China represented the single most important destination country and Chinese nationalities were the most traffickers. In conclusion, the results provide detailed evidence to inform national and international decision making on key species implicated in the illegal trade. Similar periodic assessment of the situation of iwt within the country is needed to evaluate effectiveness of the country’s past and present measures and to revise its future combatting policies and strategies.

Experiences of the Hungarian customs authority in international illegal wildlife trafficking

In this paper, we examine how Hungarian customs officers perceive the role of Hungarian customs authority and its effectiveness in international illegal wildlife trafficking. We aim to identify the characteristics of international illegal wildlife trade, which also affects Hungary, and to evaluate the experience of customs officers. Most of these custom officers encounter such crimes of international nature. By assessing and publishing their experience one can take more effective action in the future. This approach allows to identify the methods of offense, the reasons of offense, and the difficulties faced by the custom authorities. To explore this, we conducted a questionnaire survey of 27 questions addressed to many members of the target group. The survey contained closed questions and, to a lesser extent, open-ended questions, allowing to learn both their objective experience and subjective opinions. Prior to the survey, we mapped out which units of the National Tax and Customs Administration would encounter most often international illegal wildlife trafficking, and then compiled the relevant issues that may allow effective action against this kind of incident. By devising the questionnaire, our aim was to assess how frequent illegal wildlife trafficking in Hungary is, what routes and hiding methods are typical, which species are affected, and what measures are needed to increase efficiency of combating trafficking. The questionnaire was completed by 202 experts. Results show that in course of their work most respondents (64%) have met International Wildlife Trafficking monthly. According to their experience, attempts are being made to smuggle various endangered animal and plant species into the country, mainly at the Liszt Ferenc International Airport in Budapest. According to respondents, in most cases, international networks may be behind the smuggling activity. Respondents believe that the effectiveness of combating wildlife trafficking can be improved by more frequent and thorough inspections, higher priority given to such cases, increased penalties, and special training of customs officers. Based on received answers, the paper highlights the phenomena and problems that generally occur globally in the inter-regional trade of illegal wildlife. These can be addressed by effective action of law enforcement officers and customs authorities. The fight against illegal trade in protected animal and plant species is considered high priority, as it causes loss of biodiversity and damage of the ecological balance, and it jeopardizes our sustainable future.

Population density estimate for the white-faced capuchin monkey (<i>Cebus imitator</i>) in the Multiple Use Area Montaña la Botija, Choluteca, Honduras, and a range extension for the species


 
 
 Honduras is one of the Neotropical countries with the least amount of information available regarding the conservation status of its wild primate species. Understanding the real conservation status of these species is relevant, since they are of great importance for ecosystem dynamics due to the diverse ecological services they provide. However, there are many threats that endanger the conservation of these species in the country such as deforestation, illegal hunting, and illegal wildlife trafficking. The present research is the first official registration of the Central American white-faced capuchin monkey (Cebus imitator) for the Pacific slope in southern Honduras, increasing the range of its known distribution in the country. A preliminary population density estimate of the capuchin monkey was performed in the Multiple Use Area Montaña La Botija using the line transect method, resulting in a population density of 1.04 groups/km2 and 4.96 ind/km2 in the studied area. These results provide us with a first look at an isolated primate population that has never been described before and demonstrate the need to develop long-term studies to better understand the population dynamics, ecology, and behaviour, for this group in the zone.
 
 

Conflicting Outlooks?

Abstract Despite years of international criticism and domestic policy making, China still plays a key role in illegal wildlife trafficking. Although the country has begun a transition from the mindless exploitation of nature towards an envisioned Ecological Civilisation, basic tenets in traditional medicine and popular cosmology continue to have highly adverse ecological consequences, both at home and abroad. Evaluating recent trends in international wildlife trade, Chinese policy making, and popular cosmology in China, this article aims to throw light on why wildlife substances continue to play such important role in the modern society, as well as to reflect on the preconditions for broader value change. The article goes on to argue that in order to get a better understanding on how nature and wildlife are viewed in a Chinese context, one is compelled to reflect not only on the impact of popular cosmology but also of authoritarian governance on conservation.

Phylogenetic analyses of Chlamydia psittaci ompA gene sequences from captive blue-fronted Amazon parrots (Amazona aestiva) with hepatic disease in Brazil.

Chlamydia psittaci was detected in 152 (72%) blue-fronted Amazon parrots (Amazona aestiva, parrot from the Psittacidae family) out of a population of 212 that died during 2009-2011 in a wildlife rescue and rehabilitation centre in Minas Gerais, Brazil, following rescue from illegal wildlife trafficking. The macroscopic changes observed in these animals were hepatomegaly with multifocal white foci visible at the serosal surfaces of the liver, and extending into the parenchyma, and splenomegaly. The microscopic lesions observed in the liver included multifocal to coalescing miliary necrosis of hepatocytes with infiltration by heterophils, lymphocytes and plasma cells. In the spleen, loss of the normal architecture and infiltration by macrophages and plasma cells were observed. Stained tissue sections (Gimenez technique) revealed small round clusters suggestive of C. psittaci (reticulate bodies) in the cytoplasm of macrophages from the liver and spleen. Nine sequences of segments of the ompA gene, obtained from different individuals, were randomly selected for sequencing. The phylogenetic analyses showed that all strains clustered with genotype A, which is the most virulent genotype for birds. This genotype is involved in mortality of psittacines, is easily transmitted in captivity and represents a problem for successful rehabilitation. The results indicate the necessity to improve biosecurity in triage and to provide individual personal protection for professionals and caretakers.

Newly identified viral genomes in pangolins with fatal disease.

Epizootic pathogens pose a major threat to many wildlife species, particularly in the context of rapidly changing environments. Pangolins (order Pholidota) are highly threatened mammals, in large part due to the trade in illegal wildlife. During July to August 2018 four sick wild pangolins (three Manis javanica and one Manis pentadactyla) exhibiting a variety of clinical symptoms were rescued by the Jinhua Wildlife Protection Station in Zhejiang province, China. Although three of these animals died, fortunately one recovered after 2 weeks of symptomatic treatment. Using meta-transcriptomics combined with reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), we identified two novel RNA viruses in two of the dead pangolins. Genomic analysis revealed that these viruses were most closely related to pestiviruses and coltiviruses, although still highly genetically distinct, with more than 48 and 25 per cent sequence divergence at the amino acid level, respectively. We named these Dongyang pangolin virus (DYPV) and Lishui pangolin virus (LSPV) based on the sampling site and hosts. Although coltiviruses (LSPV) are known to be transmitted by ticks, we found no evidence of LSPV in ticks sampled close to where the pangolins were collected. In addition, although DYPV was present in nymph ticks (Amblyomma javanense) collected from a diseased pangolin, they were not found in the local tick population. Epidemiological investigation revealed that both novel viruses might have been imported following the illegal international trade of pangolins. Hence, these data indicate that illegal wildlife trafficking not only threatens the status of pangolin populations, but may also spread epizootic pathogens.